Goggle safety Education : Safety Device / How To select Gas Detectors / Safety Goggles/ safety

Gas detectors have been around for a long time, starting with that infamous methane sniffing canary, which sadly was a one-shot device, which when subjected to methane, tended to die rather quickly with no audio and visual alarm capabilities other than a slight cheep and a total lack of motion. Fortunately technology has advanced significantly and we find ourselves at this point in time with some very sophisticated electronic equipment. But even the most sophisticated technology is useless if the sensors used are unable to detect the gases present. The three main atmospheric hazards that you test for prior to and throughout a confined space entry are:

Combustibles (Flammables)
Eg: Methane

• Propane
• Gasoline
• Various other site-specific hydrocarbons (specific to your industry)

Oxygen – Deficiency and enrichment

Toxics
Eg: Hydrogen Sulfide

• Carbon Monoxide
• Toxic Hydrocarbons
• Various other site-specific toxics (specific to your industry)

Depending on its sensor configuration, proper gas detection equipment can help identify the hazard
and protect your workers. Selecting a gas detector should be based on the hazard faced. Unfortunately far too many purchasers make one of the largest and most crucial single equipment expenditures without really understanding what they are buying. Sensors and their capabilities are the single most important factor when choosing a gas detector, yet more often than not, decisions are based on size,
price, bells and whistles and other such features that have nothing to do with the instrument’s detecting abilities. Gas detectors come in a variety of sizes, shapes, colours and sensor configurations. For confined space work, it is necessary to monitor for oxygen deficiency/enrichment, combustible gases and toxics. Therefore an instrument capable of dealing with these three hazards is necessary.

SENSOR TECHNOLOGY
Combustible Gas Sensors
a) Catalytic Combustible Gas Sensors.
These sensors look for explosive atmospheres. They detect combustible gases by causing an actual
combustion of gases within the sensor chamber. Catalytic sensors offer good linearity, and can react to most combustible gases. However, as resistance change to %LEL is quite small, they work better in concentrations between 1,000 and 50,000 PPM. They do not measure trace amounts of gas (under 200 PPM) and therefore are of no use in determining toxic levels. The disadvantages are:

• They must have a minimum of 14% oxygen content in the air to work accurately the sensor can be damaged by lead or silicone or other catalytic poisons
• the readings can be affected by humidity and water vapour condensation they respond poorly to low energy hydrocarbons such as oil vapours, kerosene, diesel fuel and commercial
• jet fuels
• they tend to loose their linearity after a year or so
• they are not recommended for use in an acetylene atmosphere

The flame arrestor will prevent ignition of most gases except acetylene outside the sensor. It is extremely important to check the approvals for which type of hazardous locations the detector can function in. Most portable gas detectors today will be certified for service is Class I, Div I, Group ABCD atmospheres.

b) Metallic Oxide Semiconductor (MOS) Combustible Gas Sensor MOS or “Solid State” Combustible Gas Sensors have been around for years. This sensor has a long operation life (3 to 5 years), is very rugged and will recover better from high concentrations of a gas that could damage other types of sensors. There are also disadvantages:

• MOS sensors also require oxygen to work accurately, although not as much as the catalytic
• some sensor’s heating elements have a high demand for power which requires larger battery packs
• the readings can be affected by humidity and water vapour condensation
• the MOS sensor may respond to many VOCs, HFCs and solvents, but is not specific to any single compound.

c) Infra-Red Combustible Sensors
Recently Infra-Red Sensors have begun appearing in some instruments. They work well in low oxygen levels or acetylene atmospheres; however, they are quite expensive. These sensors work by reflecting light off a mirror and measuring the amount of light adsorbed during refraction. Infrared sensors typically require a constant flow across the sensing assembly and may be slow to clear from alarm. They are unable to detect hydrogen. An Infra-Red sensor calibrated for a simple hydrocarbon such as Methane or Ethane will not be accurate for vapour of higher molecular weight hydrocarbons, solvents or fuels.

Toxic Sensors
a) Electrochemical (Wet Chem) Toxic Sensors
These sensors react to a specific chemical (substance). Chemically specific sensors are available for up to 30 different gases including chlorine, ammonia, carbon monoxide, carbon dioxide, nitrogen dioxide, nitric oxide, hydrogen cyanide, hydrogen sulfide and sulfur dioxide. The manufacturer’s technical information will indicate what sensors are available for their unit.

4 SENSOR PORTABLE
COMB, H2S, CO, O2
These sensors have very good linearity, which makes them very accurate for the substance they will react to. They can measure either large or small quantities and these sensors have a typical life span  of approximately 1 year for many toxic gases and up to two years for hydrogen sulfide and carbon monoxide. As with all sensors, Wet Chem sensors have their limitations. The electrolytic fluid can freeze when left in environments having temperatures lower than 0 degrees C. Some chemical sensors may be adversely affected by altitude as they may be pressure sensitive. Abnormal readings are another issue with regards to Wet Chem sensors. Abnormal readings are generally readings that don’t make sense. For instance you are working in a sanitary sewer and your instrument is showing a CO reading of 300 PPM (current TWA in Ontario is 35 PPM) and a low reading (below the TWA of 10 PPM) of hydrogen sulfide. What you likely have is an interference from the hydrogen sulfide. Some electrochemical carbon monoxide sensors are subject to interference from low levels of  hydrogen sulfide. The knowledge that carbon monoxide is not a common occurrence in sanitary sewer applications (whereas hydrogen sulfide is) would lead you to consider that you are probably having an interference problem. In some instances, oxidizers like chlorine, chlorine dioxide and ozone can cause opposite readings on such toxic sensors such as carbon monoxide and hydrogen sulfide. Awareness of the hazards in your workplace, some basic understanding of chemistry, knowing what interfering gases adversely affect your unit and strict testing protocols will minimize this problem.


b) Metallic Oxide Semiconductor (MOS) Toxic Broad Range Gas Sensors
There are a number of different MOS sensors on the market and one has been developed for detecting toxic gases. Its make-up and operation is similar to the one used for the detection of combustible gases. However, the MOS broad range toxic sensor is capable of reacting to low PPM levels of wide range of toxic gases including carbon monoxide, hydrogen sulfide, ammonia, styrene, toluene, gasoline and many other hydrocarbons and solvents. MOS sensors cannot detect carbon dioxide or sulfur dioxide. The sensor is incapable of telling you what gas you have encountered or the concentration, only that the atmosphere may be hazardous to your health.

C) Photo Ionization Detectors (PID’s)
Industrial Hygienists, Safety and Environmental professionals and others have used Photo ionization sensor technology for evaluating atmospheric hazards in the workplace since the 1960’s. Life expectancy of these sensors is 1-3 years and costs range between $300 and $1400 for lamp replacement. They are usually too costly to use in a multi-sensor instrument. Oxygen Sensors
Oxygen sensors are the only true chemically-specific sensors. They are similar to the electrochemical (Wet Chem) sensors described previously. They are also susceptible to freezing, are sometimes  affected by altitude and have a nominal operational life of one to two years. Never use an oxygen sensor to detect toxic gases. It is true that a toxic gas will displace the oxygen in a confined space. However, it takes 60,000 PPM of any gas to lower the oxygen from 20.9% (normal) to 19.5% (alarm point). More importantly, 60,000 PPM of any toxic gas will kill you.

DESIGNING A GAS DETECTOR
Let’s build a gas detector for confined space work. To start out it will require a combustible sensor. We previously described the three types of combustible sensors available and their features. However, for confined space work, any of the three technologies will provide adequate protection. Secondly, we need an oxygen sensor to detect both oxygen enrichment and deficiency. There are several manufacturers of oxygen sensors and while they may all look different, they are essentially the same technology and will work well. To complete this instrument we will require a toxic sensor(s). The key to safe confined space gas detection lies in these toxic sensors. There are two main sensor types used in multi-sensor instrmuments electrochemical (Wet Chem) and Broad Range (Solid State MOS).
To select the correct toxic sensor we need to evaluate our confined spaces. If your area of work is an industrial site, where the toxic gases are known or can be controlled, then a chemically specific toxic sensor can be chosen (providing a sensor exists for that gas hazard). Manufacturers produce gas detectors that are capable of supporting one or two of these chemically specific sensors. Some instruments are available with a range of plug-in sensors that can be changed in the field without fuss or calibration. Other instruments must be ordered with the specific toxic sensor(s) you require. However, there is a limit to the sensors available and, if toxic hydrocarbons or solvents are a concern (common to municipal water and waste water systems as well as industrial applications), then the broad range (MOS) type may be your best bet. If you are in an area where the toxics are unknown or cannot be controlled, such as storm and sanitary sewers, pumping stations, waste treatment plants, industrial sites with toxic hydrocarbons and the like, then the broad range (MOS) type is your best solution. Unlike the chemically specific electrochemical sensors, these sensors cannot differentiate one toxic gas from another but they will tell you whether it is safe to enter or it is time to get out. The broad range sensors have their limitations as well and cannot detect any of the dioxides, i.e.:
carbon dioxide, sulphur dioxide. It must be noted that a gas detector with a combustible sensor
will not protect you from toxic levels of hydrocarbons. A classic example is gasoline. Gasoline used to have a TWA of 900 PPM. It is now considered a carcinogen. A combustible gas detector, calibrated to methane, will not alarm on gasoline until around 50% of the LEL or 5000 to 7000 PPM. This is well in excess of the old TWA and is certainly an
even bigger problem now that it is rated as a carcinogen. Regardless of its cancer causing issues, this level can cause a worker to be rendered unconscious, potentially causing death through drowning or falling. The only toxic sensors capable of detecting these low levels of hydrocarbons are the broad  range.


SAMPLING METHODS
In confined space testing it is important that the operator know how the sensor comes in contact (operation) with the atmosphere. There are three primary means of exposing the sensor to the  atmospheresample draw, diffusion and a detachable remote diffusion sensor assembly. There are strengths and weakness in all systems. Selection should be based upon need, not availability. Sample Draw The most common form of sampling a confined space is the sample draw method. The  advantage of this method is that any monitoring is performed outside the space. With a sample draw system, a pump moves the sample from the atmosphere and draws it through a hollow tube to the sensor. The pump can either be a “bulb” hand aspirator which requires squeezing or an internal motorized sample pump. Drawing the sample to the detector protects the tester by eliminating the need to enter the space and limits any movement of the door/cover to the space that may create a spark, which could ignite flammable gases that may collect around the entry point. For these reasons, the sample draw method is recommended when conducting your pre-entry test. The primary  disadvantage of this method is sample dilution. The tube leaking or using a tube over 12’ in length may reduce the concentration of some contaminant to the point where the readings presented are inaccurate. Other problems may include leaking pumps, cumbersome sample lines, and in some environments, the sample line may plug due to sludge, dirt or condensate icing. A disadvantage of the manual sample draw methods is the effort involved moving the air sample along the tube to the sensor. A general rule of thumb is that it takes 3 pump strokes to move the sample 1 foot. If your line is 12’, it will take 36 pump strokes to get the sample to the sensor, then the sampling must continue for up to 3 minutes to ensure a proper undiluted sample. If you are using a bulb hand aspirator strong
wrists are both a requirement and the end result of a lot of entries.


Sensor Operation

5 SENSOR PORTABLE
O2, COMB, H2S, CO, MOS TOXIC
Most gas detector sensors operate by diffusion. Diffusion works by air being absorbed into the sensor
cell. Electronic gas detectors rely heavily on diffusion sampling. The atmosphere must be brought to the gas sensors by the aforementioned sample draw (aspiration) or by lowering the gas detector into atmosphere. Some manufacturers offer a detachable remote sensor assembly as a means of remote sampling. Advantages of this technology include the lack of pumps and moving parts, much faster response time than aspiration and wires can carry the information with no potential of diluted readings. The sample method is still diffusion but the sensors are lowered into the atmosphere to be tested. Once the atmosphere has been tested by aspiration and/or remote sensors, the gas detector can be worn by the worker for the duration. Because each sampling method has its own strengths and weaknesses, all techniques are used to monitor the atmosphere. The sample draw is used for the pre-entry test that occurs just inside the space at the doorway. (suggestion: use a 6’ or shorter tube). Diffusion sampling occurs at all other times. Regardless of sampling techniques, spaces two to three meters deep should be tested top and bottom before entering. Spaces four to five meters deep should be tested top, middle and bottom before entering. Calibration/Bump Test All portable gas detectors should be calibrated according to the manufacturers recommendations. Not calibrating or bump testing a gas detector on a regular basis is an invitation to disaster. Sensors and/or electronics can, and do fail and it is only prudent to check your instrument on a regular basis.
a) Bump Test
A bump or field test is the application of a known gas concentration in excess of the calibrated alarm
point of the instrument. When this gas is applied to the gas detector it should trip the alarm point ensuring that the instrument is functioning correctly. If it does not then it indicates that a re-calibration is necessary. Multiple gas mixtures are available that allow you to do a simultaneous Bump test with one canister of gas. It is a good policy to bump test at least once a week.
b) Calibration
Calibration should be performed as per the manufacturers recommendations. Calibration is done with
a known gas concentration that can be at the exact alarm point or at a higher concentration where the set point can be adjusted. This varies between manufacturers. If you are Bump/Field testing on a regular basis you can wait until that tests indicates a re-calibration is required. If Bump/Field test are not performed then the unit should be re-calibrated on a regular basis. Manufacturer’s recommendations vary from daily to never. Daily may not be practical and never, while time saving can be an invitation to disaster. Somewhere in between is the answer. Every three to six months is common.

DESIGN CHARACTERISTICS
The third component to consider in gas detector selection is design characteristics. Many gas detectors are sold solely upon these characteristics. The reason for this is that many gas detector manufacturers do not make their own sensors. They design and make the electronic box of the gas detector. The following characteristics should be considered after selecting the appropriate sensors:

• Construction
• Electronics
• Approvals
• Ease of use

a) Construction
Monitoring devices must be very rugged and easily carried by the workers. Even with training and the best intentions of the workers, field use does abuse the units. Drops, jolts, exposure to the elements, misuse, etc., all can shorten the life of the instrument. The case and its components must be constructed to withstand rough handling. The unit’s alarm systems, which should be both audio and visual, must be loud enough to be heard in your environment by either the attendant outside the space or the entrant(s) inside. In a perfect world, both attendant and entrant would hear the alarm. Some manufacturers have remote alarms that could enable both the attendant and entrant to simultaneously hear the alarm. The option is only worth the money spent if the remote wiring is long enough for all your spaces. Batteries are another consideration. Batteries can be either disposable or rechargeable but either type should supply enough power to last 10 to 12 hours. If the batteries cannot last the entire work period, a back up or stand by power source must be present. Batteries have all sorts of limitations. Many units have no way to determine the charge in them; cold and age decrease battery life; lead acid batteries can leak and damage your electronics; NiCad (rechargeable batteries) can develop memories and so on. Battery maintenance costs and efforts should be evaluated very carefully to ensure your system will work when required. The new nickel metal hydride rechargeable batteries appear to have cut down the memory problems found in the older NiCad rechargeable  batteries. For confined space work, gas detectors need to be portable (hand held). If the unit is  designed to be worn by the worker, it should rest on their belt, not weigh it down. In many tight spots, the worker should not wear the device as it may create a catch point. It may be advisable to have the ability to hang up the unit inside the space. Switches, buttons and knobs should be positioned or designed so that they cannot be knocked out of position, but one can still operate them with gloves on. The unit should be tamper resistant and default to an alarm mode in the event of battery or sensor failure. Gauges and/or displays should be large and easily read and understood. This means you must be able to not only see the displayed data, but also understand it. In confined spaces there are all types of lighting. Does the information show in all lighting situations? And finally, do the abbreviations make sense or do you need an explanation card on the detector? If the information cannot be understood, it may not be performing the job that it is intended to do.

b) Electronics
Information provided must be reliable and useful as life and death decisions can be made based on the data provided. The electronics’ response time, accuracy, precision, radio frequency (RF) interference, reading drift and sensitivity are all factors that can differentiate a poor purchase from a good investment.

c) Approvals*
Once a manufacturer has developed an instrument for use in a hazardous atmosphere, it should be approved by an independent laboratory for intrinsic safety. Ie: UL, FM, CSA, TUV, MET etc. Federal OSHA in the USA identifies such approval laboratories as “NRTL” (Nationally Recognized Testing Laboratories) and lists four pages of them on its website.

d) Ease of Use
One of the most important considerations after sensor evaluation and selection is the ease of use of the instrument. Is it simple to operate? Is it simple to understand? Are the buttons/switches easy to use with gloves on? Do you have to use switches or buttons to get alarm information? Will it alarm when battery/sensors fail? Most importantly, is it one switch operation?

TECHNICAL CONSIDERATIONS
RF Protection
Radio Frequency Interference (RFI) protection is the unit’s ability to protect the readings from interference caused by radio waves, pulsed power lines, transformers, and generators. RF protection is expressed in immunity to x watts of radio transmission at a specific distance. A prudent consumer should test a gas detector in and around cell phones, radios and walkie talkies before purchasing, especially if the gas detector is packaged in anything other than metal.

Response Time
4 SENSOR PORTABLE
COMB, O2 AND ANY 2 OF 13
FIELD INTERCHANGEABLE
TOXIC SENSORS

This is the time period between obtaining data from the sensors and displaying it. This time period
depends on what information is collected, the sensor response, how the unit of measurement being used (e.g. % LEL or PPM). Response time can range from several seconds for catalytic elements to minutes for some toxic sensors. Accuracy and Precision Accuracy is the relationship between the readout and the true concentration. This relationship is indicated by an error factor (indicated by “+/-“,e.g. +/- 0.5%). The lower the number, the greater the instrument’s accuracy. Precision is the number of times the accuracy would be right in any given number of tests (correct 19 times out of 20). In this case the higher the number, the greater the precision.


Sensitivity
This is the unit’s ability to accurately measure changes in concentrations. The hazards presented by
the substance being measured would determine the need for sensitivity. For instance, at present in Ontario, chlorine has a time weighted average exposure value of 1 PPM and if is IDLH at 10 PPM; therefore, any change must be noted at once. On the other hand, carbon dioxide’s TWAEV is 5000 PPM, and is IDLH at 40,000 PPM; therefore the sensitivity need not be that great.
Selectivity/Specificity This is the ability of the sensor/circuitry to respond to the desired target gas to the exclusion of other interfering gas species.


Reading Drifts
This is the movement in the instrument’s electronic readout when the atmospheric value remains the
same. Moving the instrument from one angle to another, shaking it, ambient vibrations or no apparent reason may cause the readout to change. Poor electronic circuit board design and/or age of the machine or the sensor will cause the readings to drift. Sensor or component aging causing this problem is acceptable and can be compensated for as part of the unit’s ongoing maintenance program; however, poor construction is not acceptable. Poor construction cannot be repaired and creates mistrust of the unit with those who work with it. If they do not trust the readings, they will not use it and a tragedy could easily occur. Your best protection is to contact current users of the instrument and ask about their experiences. Well we have now arrived at close to 4100 words on selecting a gas detector. If you are still awake, congratulations, because to get to this point you must have some interest in this topic not to have been bored to death. In closing I would like you to please keep in mind that portable gas detectors are available from a variety of manufacturers. They range from single electrochemical sensor instruments to very precise multiple sensor units. Do not be swayed by sophisticated technology and fancy packaging. Choose a device that meets your needs (both short term and for the next 3 to 5 years if possible). Look at all the variables from sensors to design, but always keep sensors as your number one criteria. Your employees also have to be considered in the equation. If not, a perfectly good gas detector will collect dust because they feel the damn thing isn’t any good! A well thought out purchase can save lives and prevent injuries

Safety: Fire Fighter Clothing Or Bunker Gear Information

Bunker Gear or "Turnout Gear" are terms used by many firefighters to refer to their system of outer protective clothing. "Bunker gear" and "turnout gear" can refer, depending on the context, to just the trousers and boots, and jacket, or the entire combination of personal protective equipment and personal protective clothing. The terms are derived from the fact that the trousers and boots are traditionally kept by the firefighter's bunk at the fire station to be readily available for use. This clothing is usually referred to as Fire Kit in the UK and Ireland. In Hong Kong it is referred to as incident gear.

Historically, firefighters did not have the same level of protective clothing used today. Because of this most fires were fought from the outside of burning buildings, and structures were rarely entered. Early in the history of firefighting, a firefighter's outer clothing were more for warmth and dryness than for protection from fire. In the early 19th century, felt caps were worn of various design and were more for decoration than service, this early headgear did not provide any protection against flame or head injury but did keep water off the firefighter's face. The forerunner of the modern firefighter's helmet was developed in 1830 by a luggage maker Henry Gratacap who was a volunteer firefighter in New York City. He saw a need for a better designed helmet that was both functional and provided protection to the wearer. This helmet is immediately recognizable today as the "New Yorker" style and little has changed in its general shape. The helmet had a high peaked front to retain a helmet shield which was usually adorned with a company name and number and it also featured eight rib sections on the dome (for added rigidity) and a long rear brim that channeled water away from the wearer's neck.

The early use of long trench coats, made of leather or canvas and later made of rubber, was the forerunner of modern turnout jackets. Early coats had felt or wool liners to provide warmth in the winter. These liners later developed in basic thermal protection liners found in today's modern coats. Earlier rubber coats were much longer than today's modern turnout jackets, reaching down to a firefighter's mid thigh and were worn with long rubber boots called "three-quarter boots" which came above the firefighter's knees. This interface of boot and coat left a large gap of protection against fire. This system has since been replaced by the modern combination of a jacket, pants with suspenders, and shorter rubber or leather boots, although some departments still wear the traditional old style of gear.

The combination of modern triple-layer turnout gear with self-contained breathing apparatus (SCBA), PASS device, and modern communications equipment made it more feasible and survivable to enter burning buildings. Modern turnout jackets and pants are made of fire resistant fabrics (mainly Aramids such as Nomex and Kevlar) or polybenzimidazole (PBI) fibers The standard that the National Fire Protection Association has designated to firefighter protective clothing, NFPA 1971: Standard on Protective Ensembles for Structural Fire Fighting and Proximity Fire Fighting, which specifies "the minimum design, performance, safety, testing, and certification requirements for structural fire fighting protective ensembles and ensemble elements that include coats, trousers, coveralls, helmets, gloves, footwear, and interface components.

Station uniform

The first component of firefighting equipment is the uniform that a firefighter will wear around the station. Its purpose is to provide a comfortable clothing that they wear around the station, but will not become an obstruction when a firefighter is required to put on his turnout gear. Naturally, turnout gear is to be worn over the station garments during any call that a firefighter is called upon. Another aspect of the station uniform is the station safety shoes, commonly referred to as work boots. These shoes are required to be fitted with safety toes and puncture-resistant soles in most countries in case the firefighter goes out on a call that does not require his/her turnout gear.

United States

The United States follows NFPA 1975, Standard on Station/Work Uniforms for Fire Fighters. NFPA 1975s main purpose is that no part of the uniform garment “ignite, melt, drip, or separate”[1] when exposed to a heat of 500°F for 5 minutes.

Turnout clothing

Turnout clothing can consist of a combination of trousers with a overall strap attached, boots, and a jacket. Most fire services seem to use a trouser/jacket combination. The advantage of this combination is the ability to take off the jacket in situations where the jacket is not necessary. Since bunker gear insulates the body from the outside air the body heats up rapidly, taking off a jacket helps considerably in keeping cool.

Materials

According to NFPA 1971 and similar standards in other countries, all turnout clothing must have three components: an outer shell, a moisture barrier, and a thermal barrier. In between these layers are pockets of air referred to as "dead zones". These layers of air along with the three protective layers help to further insulate the wearer from the extreme environments of fires. Usually turnout pants are outfitted with reinforced knees and leather cuffs.

The materials used for the three layers in turnout trousers and coats may vary but will very often include a Nomex/Kevlar combination of material. As an example, the materials used by the Los Angeles City Fire Department, as found in their 2005 recruit handout are as follows:

Outer Shell: Southern Mills, Advanced, Nomex/Kevlar blend in a "Rip stop Weave", with water repellent finish.

Thermal Insulated Layer: Southern Mills Caldura Batten Quilt Material. Thermal and Moisture barriers are sewn together for removal for cleaning, repair and replacement from Outer shell.

Moisture Barrier: Breathe-Tex material combined with Nomex/Kevlar blend laminated cloth.

NFPA 1500 (Primary Guidelines for the Fire Service) and similar standards mandate features such as protective collars and sleeves to protect the fire fighter from exposure to heat, (hot or polluted) water and debris :

Turnout trousers

Once the need arises for actual firefighting protective equipment to be worn, also known as turnouts, a firefighter must properly wear protective equipment required. Turnout trousers will be the first article of clothing that a firefighter will usually wear. Suspenders worn with the turnout trousers should be the heavy duty type in order to stand up against such heavy weights and rigorous activities they will face. Most experienced interior firefighters (firefighters that enter the structure in an emergency) will carry, in their turnout trouser pockets, various tools and equipment as well as rope they may need during an emergency. The turnout trousers, when not in use, are usually stored scrunched down around the boots for efficient and fast access when they are needed. The firefighter may then step into each boot and pull up the trousers and suspenders.

Turnout coat

A turn out jacket

A turnout coat is the type of jacket typically worn by firefighters. Oversized pockets allow for carrying tools and equipment, and reflective safety stripes ensure that firefighters remain visible to each other. Protective coats will usually have Velcro or zipper functions which will enable a firefighter to properly and efficiently don this piece of gear. There is also a storm flap which covers this closure area and protects it against damage and loosening and as an extra measure to the fire fighter as these areas can be exposed to fire and heat. Wristlets, 4 inch (according to NFPA 1500) 100% Nomex coverings along the distal end of the coat arms in with the thumb joint will slip through, fit around the firefighter's hand and provide redundant protection where the skin may show between the glove and coat. They are designed to prevent burns to the wrist, while preventing bunching and remaining flexible.

Overall

The overalls that are available are of the same materials and specifications. Usually an overall has a cord built in around the waist to make it fit better. Because of its size it's more difficult to scrunch up the overall around the boots.

Boots

Several pairs of surplus firefighter boots.

Firefighter turnout boots are usually sized as a regular shoe, but are made of rubber or leather with a Boron Steel toe insert. The boots are slipped inside the legs of the trousers to maintain a barrier from the heat given off by the fire. When the trousers and boots are not being actively used, the trousers will fold down and out around the shins of the boots, ready for quick access for the firefighter. Due to the enormous amounts of potential hazards at a fire scene to the feet, turnout boots are required to be able to handle a variety of different burns and blows. All boots are required to be outfitted with safety toes and a puncture resistant midsole plate to prevent puncture from sharp objects that may be stepped on. Such emphasis on the midsole plate is made that IFSTA has deemed that “if there is doubt about midsole protection, [one should go as far as to] x-ray the boot.” Flash hood/Nomex hood and other parts of the garments A firefighter wearing the face-piece component of an SCBA with Nomex hood

When helmets do not provide built-in protection for the ears, neck and part of the face a protective firefighting hood is worn by firefighters. These are fitted and designed to protect the firefighter’s ears, neck, and the parts of his face which are not protected by the SCBA mask.

They are designed to the guidelines set by NFPA 1975. Cal/OSHA Title #8 also has regulations in the state of California. They are made of Nomex Knit Fabric which weighs 6 oz./ Sq. Yrd.; they are most often double ply with only one seam running from the top center of the face opening, over the top and down the bottom of the bib. The Nomex Knit, which is standard, is why they are commonly referred to as Nomex hoods. First, the hood is tucked into the collar. The SCBA mask is then donned, and the hood pulled over the face seal to cover any exposed skin.

Firefighter helmet Main article: Firefighter's helmet The firefighter's helmet is built to withstand falling objects and high heat.

The fire helmet's first function was to shed water in early years. Today, it is first and foremost designed to protect a firefighter from falling debris and injury to the head while fighting a fire. The secondary job of the fire helmet is to protect from heat, and hence burns to the head. It provides a hard shell, electrical, heat, and steam burn protection, and in some types of helmets, goggles or a visor. Goggles or a visor are used to protect the firefighter's eyes during rescue and extrication operations. Fire helmets are constructed of various materials including non conductive materials for protection against electrical currents, carbon fiber and plastic combination for a lightweight design for comfort, and a Kevlar lining for strength and protection.

The design of helmets vary from fire service to fire service and depends on the service or department's requirements. Some helmets are fitted with a face guard or shield to protect the firefighter's face against heat, dust, water and debris when working on a rescue or extraction call as well as when performing fire exposure protection. In the case of exposure protection the shield works better for it keeps more heat from the firefighter's face, but the goggles give more eye protection in extraction and rescue ops.

United States

There are four basic components to firefighting helmets:

Helmet shell: Well balanced, lightweight, and designed to provide maximum protection. Contains a Front Brim (provides protection to "eyes and facial" area), Rear Brim (Protection to "neck" from debris and water run-off), and Raised Top (Provides stability from impact from above).

Impact ring: 3/8" thick sponge rubber Impact Ring to absorb impact energy Helmet liner: High Density plastic liner, made of fire retardant cotton and nomex; completely adjustable; "NAPE Strap" adjusts to firmly cradle the occipital portion of head.

Chin strap: 3/4" wide, black nylon w/ Velcro on one end, leather backed "postman" side buckle. The leather helps protect the skin of the cheek from the metal buckle. Previous types of helmets had been constructed of a steel outer shell with a ribbed construction for extra strength and compressed cork with a lacquer applied to the outer face of it. The design and shape of the helmet is intended to redirect water and debris from the head and neck area. It also prevents head or neck injury to the firefighter in the event of falling debris.

Colors

Some departments, such as the Los Angeles City Fire Department (LAFD) use the helmet color to identify officers and functions and is listed as follows per www.lafd.org

White : Chief Officer (Chief, Assistant Chief, Battalion Chief)

Orange : Captain I and Captain II (Reflective tape blue under the helmet number is a Captain I "Engine Captain" / Red is a Captain II "Truck Captain"

Yellow : Firefighter, Firefighter/Paramedic, Engineer, Apparatus Operator, Probationary Firefighter NO FRONT SHIELD

Red : Arson

Blue : Paramedic Single function non fire suppression certified or Firefighter Cadet/Intern

Yellow Helmet with Green Numbers : Specialized companies Hazardous Materials, Urban Search and Rescue, Fire Boats

Black : Fire Explorers (now called Fire Cadets)

Orange Helmet with Green Numbers : Captains of the specialized Companies

The New York City Fire Department (FDNY) issues a black helmet to all ranks except those of Battalion Chief and up. These officers receive a white helmet. The FDNY uses the front shield of the helmet to distinguish both company number and the function of that company. The following colors denote function in the FDNY:

Black : Engine Company

Red : Ladder Company

Blue : Rescue and Hazardous Materials Company

Yellow : Squad Company

Green : Marine Units

Orange : Probationary Firefighter

The Houston Fire Department uses a combination of colored helmets and colored leather shields and colored coat striping to distinguish rank and function.

Black: Firefighter and Engineer/Operator(E/O) with a black shield, Incident Command Technicians (ICT) also known as "Chief Chauffeur's" have a white shield

Red : Captain with a red shield (Engine Captains) and a white shield for Senior Captains (Ladder Truck Captains).

White: District Chiefs and above. Also all FF,E/O's and ICT's have yellow reflective on the bunker coats. Officers from Capt to Chief have red reflective.

Certain styles of helmets do not lend themselves to the use of leather helmet fronts. Typically these helmets use crescents on the side to distinguish function. These crescents come in a wide variety of titles and are usually reflective in nature.

In most cases here in the United states the colors will be as follows Fire chief, Assistant chief, Deputy Chief, Battalion chief : white Captain and LT's: red or yellow and vice versa. Engineers: red or black Firefighters: black in most cases, yellow at some departments Probationary: Orange, yellow Safety officer: Blue explorers and Jr's: Green and Yellow

Europe

In Europe and some Europe-oriented countries around the world the helmet designs vary from the U.S. designs in that they are moving towards a style without brims. The pilot-style helmets have a brim at the front of the helmet, and a shape that covers more of the head. The neck is protected by a combination of a Nomex (or similar material) flash hood, and a foil-faced neck curtain which connects to the rear of the helmet. In most designs the nomex fabric also protects the area around a SCBA facepiece and the front of the neck. A commonly used helmet is the F1 helmet although several other designs like the Dräger HPS Helmet are in use.

These helmets tend to have in-built face protection (visors) and eye protection that swivel into the shell of the helmet for protection.

EN 443:1997 (Helmets for firefighters) specifies the properties that are demanded for protection, comfort and durability. There are optional specifications to cater for national requirements. The new EN 443-2008 now replace the EN 443-1997.

Hand protection

There are many types of hand protection which are available to firefighters today, the most common being the work glove and the structural firefighting glove.

Work gloves are a must for all fire services. They are used when gloves are required, but actual firefighting gloves are not. They allow better mobility to perform various types of functions from relaying hose beds to vehicle maintenance.

Work gloves are usually made of leather or a leather-like material.

Extrication gloves are similar in design and appearance to auto mechanic's gloves but are made of a heavier rip-proof and puncture-resistant material such as Kevlar while still lightweight enough to allow the manual dexterity to operate rescue equipment and sometimes enough to take a victim's pulse. These are used in urban search and rescue, vehicle extrication and related applications, but are not rated for firefighting.

For an actual working fire, structural firefighting gloves must be worn. Structural gloves tend to be the last piece of protective equipment to be donned; usually because the free dexterity of the fingers are required to perform functions such as properly placing an SCBA mask on and accurately tightening a helmet strap. The gloves will fit over the wristlets and under the distal part of the coat sleeve, ensuring full enclosure of the latter arm. Gloves are designed to protect from extreme heat, various penetrating objects, and to allow dexterity. Usually the latter is sacrificed in order to give adequate protection to heat and sharp objects. Newer gloves are more lightweight and don't lose their dexterity when they dry after becoming wet, the way leather gloves may.

Fire Extinguishers

We've all seen fire extinguishers in schools, public buildings, and even at people's homes. Fire extinguishers are excellent tools for putting out fires and saving lives, but many people don't know how to use them properly and effectively. It is important to know that there are different extinguishers for different types of fires, and how to handle an extinguisher. Read below and you will always be prepared in the event of a fire.

Fire Classification

Fires are classified by what type of material is burning.

Class A fires refer to most fires that catch in ordinary objects. Ordinary objects include clothing, toys, carpets, and papers.

Class B fires refer to fires that are based in flammable liquids such as grease, oil, or gasoline. It is important to remember that grease and oil can be found in most kitchens, and also in some bathroom products such as lotions and hair balms. Garages are hot spots for Class B fires, as there can easily be grease, gas, or oil on the ground, in tanks, or on rags.

Class C fires occur when electrical equipment such as wires and electrical appliances catch fire.

Class D fires are less common in houses as the other classes of fire. They refer to fires that catch in metals such as magnesium, titanium, potassium and sodium. Water or liquid chemicals generally do not extinguish these fires. They often require an extinguishing dry powder to put them out.

Using the Right Extinguisher

Once you have determined the class of fire, it is important that you use the proper extinguisher. All classifications are shown on the faceplate on the front side of the extinguisher. Some extinguishers are marked with multiple fire classes such as AB, BC and ABC. These extinguishers are capable of putting out more than one class of fire. For this reason, most people keep ABC fire extinguishers so that no thinking has to be done in the event of a fire.

How to Use an Extinguisher

Fire extinguishers are simple to use. Simply remember the acronym "PASS" and you will know the steps to effectively putting out a fire:

P: Pull the pin. You will find a pin in the bottom part of the nozzle. Yank it out.

A: Aim the extinguisher nozzle. The most effective place to aim for is at the bottom of the flames, where the combustibles are.

S: Squeeze trigger. Keep the extinguisher upright as you spray.

S: Sweep the extinguisher from side to side. Be sure to spray the entire area of the fire.

If you forget these steps, simply read the directions on the back of the extinguisher, or just use your common sense. And remember: if the fire gets out of control, get away immediately and call the fire department to come put the fire out.

Fire Safety Clothings

Every tool firefighters bring to the scene of a fire is designed to withstand extreme heat, harsh chemicals, and dangerous conditions. This is true even of the clothes they wear. No material is completely fireproof, but firefighters’ clothes are designed to provide a fire-resistant shield that protects them against extremely high temperatures for a long period of time.

Firefighters’ clothes are typically made of a combination of Nomex—a material that provides extreme heat and fire protection, actually carbonizing in the presence of heat and creating a thick barrier that protects the skin—and Kevlar, a material that adds flexibility and breathability to allow firefighters to perform strenuous work even in difficult conditions. Here’s an overview of the gear firefighters wear when they respond to a call.

Fire kit. Also referred to as “turnout gear” or “bunker gear,” this refers to firefighters’ outer protective gear, which is highly fire resistant clothing. The term can be used to mean trousers, boots and jacket, or the entire system of protective clothing and equipment. According to tradition, the trousers and boots are traditionally stored by the firefighter’s bunk at the fire station for quick access. The trousers are typically stored crumpled around the boots so firefighters can step quickly into the boots and pull the trousers up.

Most fire brigades assign firefighters a jacket and trousers as part of their fire kit. This combination allows firefighters to take the jacket off if needed to cool off. Ordinarily, the fire kit’s job is to provide insulation from outside air—so they’re very hot.

Some fire brigades, however, assign a full-body suit that covers both upper and lower body. While this can’t be removed in situations where full-body protection isn’t needed, it also provides better protection from hot gasses, since there’s no gap between the top and bottom garments.

Boots. Firefighters use boots made of rubber or leather. They’re designed for extra toughness, fitted with safety toes and a midsole plate assuring puncture-resistance in case the firefighter steps on a nail or other sharp object. The rubber or leather is treated to be extremely fire resistant.

Helmets. A firefighter’s helmet is designed to protect the firefighter’s head from falling debris, as well as extreme heat. The helmet is made with a hard shell made to provide protection against heat, steam, electrical shocks and other hazards. Some come equipped with built-in goggles or visors to protect the eyes and face.

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Protective hoods. Helmets are designed for heat and hazard protection, but they don’t cover the ears, neck, and a significant part of the face. When full-body protection is needed, firefighters wear a hood that completely covers the areas not protected by the helmet. These are made from Nomex knit fabric—the same material that provides heat and fire protection on a firefighter’s fire kit and other fire resistant clothing.

The fire resistant clothing firefighters wear is designed to perform miracles. It allows firefighters to walk into burning buildings, rescue victims and extinguish fires without risk of serious injury or death. It can be very hot and heavy to wear, but the protection is worth it.