Smoking Regulations in the Workplace

Secondhand smoke increases the risk of heart disease and lung cancer. It also can impact the circulatory and respiratory systems immediately. Exposure to secondhand smoke often occurs away from the home for nonsmokers, including inside the workplace. Smoking regulations are an important consideration for businesses, not only to set rules, but also to guard against secondhand smoke.
Purpose

Workplace smoking regulations spell out the specifics on whether is allowed in the workplace. For businesses that choose to allow smoking, the regulations should indicate where the activity is allowed. For example, you may restrict smoking to specific outdoor locations or require that the employees go to their vehicles to smoke. The company smoking policy also should include consequences if employees smoke when it is banned or engage in smoking in banned areas.

Legal Factors

Some states have established laws about smoking in the workplace, and these laws often govern both public and private places of employment. Other states focus primarily on public workplaces or allow for smoking in designated areas. Texas does not have a statewide workplace smoking ban, but a coalition of organizations called Smoke-Free Texas continues to push for such laws. Cities and municipalities also can enact smoking laws. For example, Houston prohibits smoking in enclosed areas of both public and private workplaces, as well as any outdoor space within 25 feet of any doors, handicapped ramps, functioning windows or intake areas for air conditioners.

Benefits

According to the American Cancer Society, there is no safe exposure level to secondhand smoke. Nonsmokers cannot avoid exposure when smoking is allowed on the premises. Smoking regulations in the workplace protect nonsmokers from the harmful side effects while they are on the job. The inability to smoke at work may encourage the smokers in the company to quit the unhealthy habit. The policy may also appeal to potential employees who don't smoke.

Actions

Create a written policy that addresses smoking in the workplace. All current employees should sign a copy of the policy to verify that they understand and agree to abide by the regulations. New employees should receive written details about the policy so they are aware of their inability to smoke at work. Allowing employees to smoke in designated areas still puts nonsmokers at risk for secondhand smoke exposure. Smoking near entrances causes exposure for other employees. Allowing any smoking indoors may lead to exposure even if nonsmokers aren't in the immediate area. Ventilation and air cleaning won't adequately remove the exposure risk.

* Shelley Frost, holds a BA in elementary education with a reading endorsement.

Safety Regulations in a Workplace, OSHA helps small businesses comply with their regulations.

Most safety regulations in the workplace are enforced by the Occupational Health and Safety Administration, according to the U.S. Department of Labor. Safety regulations are meant to protect workers, while punishing businesses that put their employees in danger. Small business often have the hardest time conforming to ever-changing safety regulations because they lack the manpower and resources to hire their own safety inspectors, but the federal government offers free information to help businesses tackle safety issues.

During the 19th century and earlier, workplace safety regulations were almost nonexistent in the U.S., according to the Economic History Association. The first railroad regulatory commissions appeared the 1840s, but were hardly effective at improving worker safety since they had little legal authority. The first safety regulations appeared during the 1900s and 1910s, such as the formation of the Food and Drug Administration, but mostly to protect people working in dangerous jobs, such as railroads and mines, or as a response to whistle-blowing, muckraking journalists.

OSHA

In 1970, Congress passed the Occupational Safety and Health Act, which established the first federal body--OSHA--to oversee workplace safety, according to the Department of Labor. OSHA, or one of its state approved arms, enforces safety regulations. As of 2010, only the self-employed, families of farmers and those protected by other government agencies, such as the Coast Guard, do not fall under OSHA's jurisdiction.

Small Business Regulatory Enforcement Fairness Act

Because of the difficulties and expenses incurred by small businesses trying to implement OSHA regulations, Congress passed the Small Business Regulatory Enforcement Fairness Act in 1996, according to the U.S. Small Business Administration. The SBREFA offers small businesses more input in federal safety regulations via the SBA and a reduction in penalties for safety violations.

Benefits

Safety regulations not only offer workers a safer working environment, it saves small businesses time and money. Since the inception of OSHA, workplace accidents and fatalities have fallen 40 percent, according to All Business. In addition, each year, 6 million workplace injuries occur--costing Americans about $110 billion each year, according to the OSHA Small Business Handbook.

Tip

Small business can receive help from OSHA to improve their work site by simply requesting a free safety consultation, according to OSHA. OSHA recommends that employers allow employee to participate in the OSHA inspection so they are better informed about safety issues and spotting hazards, and so OSHA can gauge the safety knowledge of the current staff.

* Russell Huebsch, graduated from Baylor University in 2009 with a Bachelor of Arts degree in political science.

Wooowww....Girls Killed In M25 Crash Horror ! Buuussssseettt

Two young sisters were killed today when they were thrown from a car in a horrific crash which closed the M25.

The girls, thought to be aged six and 10, were hurled up to 20 feet from the car as it overturned at high speed and spun onto the embankment. A man in his mid-to-late-twenties who was in the back seat was also killed. He had to be cut from the wreckage.

The driver is being treated in hospital after the accident w hich happened on the clockwise section of the orbital motorway, between Potters Bar and Enfield, atabout 3am.

Traffic police closed a nine-mile stretch of the clockwise carriageway of the M25 between junctions 23 and 25 in Hertfordshire.

They said the section was likely to be closed until at least mid-morning while investigations into the cause of the accident continued.

An ambulance service spokesman said: "The girls died instantly. It was a terrible sight. The car was completely w recked. The driver was in complete shock. At this stage,it is unclear what caused the car to crash, but no other vehicle was involved."

After overturning, the car spun off the carriageway and up an embankment. It rolled over several times before coming to rest 20 feet up the embankment on the hard shoulder.

Roadside workers raised the alarm and helped police and fire officers in the rescue effort.

The ambulance spokesman for Bedfordshire ambulance service praised five workmen who raised the alarm and helped in the rescue effort.

"They had been on duty on major roadworks nearby and were there when the ambulance arrived," he said. "They were absolutely excellent.."

The M25 has been plagued by crashes throughout the summer. Three weeks ago an entire section was shut for a day after a car and lorry collided between junctions 16 and 17 at Gerrards Cross.

OSHA Topic ; Osha Safety Topics : Worker killed by truck; company says it’s answered enough OSHA questions

You know that if injuries or a fatality bring OSHA to a workplace, its inspection won’t necessarily be limited to conditions involving that particular incident. Despite that being common knowledge, a Nebraska company is fighting OSHA’s attempt to interview two of its managers.


A lawyer for Farmers Cooperative Co. in Talmadge calls OSHA’s attempts to interview its manager and assistant manager about safety practices not connected to the death of an employee a “fishing expedition.”

Here’s the history behind this case:

Employee Roger Teten was killed on Jan. 29 after a truck backed into him.

In May, OSHA sent subpoenas to the two top managers, leading to a deposition on June 5. The managers answered questions about Teten’s death at the deposition.

However, when questions turned to other safety matters at the cooperative, company lawyer James Luers told the two managers not to answer them. Luers said the additional questions would only lead to more OSHA citations.

(Actually, it would only lead to more OSHA citations if the answers to the questions pointed to any additional violations.)

A document obtained by the World-Herald News Service quotes Luers as saying, “Every time the management has interviewed in the past, they (OSHA) utilize that interview to support their citations. And quite frankly, it’s unfair.”

In response, OSHA noted it has broad investigative powers, and the OSH Act allows use of the federal court system to enforce OSHA subpoenas. Ignoring OSHA subpoenas can lead to a finding of contempt of court, which then can lead to fines and jail time.

Luers said the basis for his objection to further questioning of the two managers was the Fifth Amendment, the right against self-incrimination.

OSHA noted there are no criminal charges in this case, so the Fifth Amendment doesn’t apply.
The whole thing is now in the hands of a federal judge.

One note: Farmers Cooperative says, on the matter of the employee death, it’s been working completely with OSHA. Luers says it’s turned over all sorts of documents about the death and the two managers answered questions in June for three hours.

Difficult for employer to win

The OSH Act says OSHA can obtain information from employers provided the investigation is within the agency’s authority, which has been interpreted by at least one federal court as relevant to any inquiry OSHA is authorized to make.

Therefore, it’s unlikely an employer will win a challenge to the scope of a subpoena.And, as OSHA inspectors have said publicly at safety conferences, if you really want to challenge them to find as many things to issue fines for, just stand in their way when they want to perform an inspection.
If it were easy to turn away OSHA inquiries, the standard advice wouldn’t be to be ready for OSHA to inspect your facility, even when you haven’t had injuries or a fatality.

Forklift Certification : ForkLift Certification Which New reg On Top Of OSHA's Priority List ?

OSHA has a lot of proposed new regs in the pipeline, from silica exposure limits to injury and illness prevention programs. Now we have an idea of the order in which they will receive action.
OSHA has released its Spring 2013 Regulatory Agenda. Yep, it came out in July, more than two weeks after spring ended, but that’s been the pattern. The Fall 2012 agenda came out a few days into winter.
Running a little later than expected also seems to be the theme when you compare the two lists. Many items are the same. Some deadlines stated in the Fall 2012 list have since passed. Most items have been pushed back a few months.
Nevertheless, whether the predicted target dates for action stick or not, it’s instructional to check out the agenda. Noting how the proposed regulatory changes are categorized and the order in which they are supposed to be enacted provides a realistic look into OSHA’s priorities, even if the time schedule is little more than wishful thinking.
Those on the “final rule” list are closest to becoming new rules. There are nine items on that list. Four of them involve procedures for the handling of retaliation complaints. The other five are:

• Occupational Injury and Illness Recording and Reporting Requirements; NAICS Update and Reporting Revisions (July 2013): This regulatory revision has two parts: 1) Use NAICS instead of SIC system to categorize industries that are partially exempt from maintaining occupational injury and illness records, and 2) Require employers to report to OSHA, within eight hours, all work-related fatalities and all work-related in-patient hospitalizations; and within 24 hours, all work-related amputations. The current regulation requires an employer to report to OSHA, within eight hours, all work-related fatalities and in-patient hospitalizations of three or more employees.
• Electric Power Transmission and Distribution; Electrical Protective Equipment (proposed final rule date July 2013): The construction industry standard addressing the safety of workers during the construction of electric power transmission and distribution lines is nearly 40 years old. OSHA has developed a revision of this standard.
• Walking Working Surfaces and Personal Fall Protection Systems — Slips, Trips and Fall Prevention (November 2013): New technologies and procedures have become available to protect employees from these hazards. OSHA has been working to update these rules to reflect current technology.
• Confined Spaces in Construction (December 2013): In 1993, OSHA issued a rule to protect employees in general industry who enter confined spaces. This would extend the rule to the construction industry.
• Vertical Tandem Lifts (April 2014): In 2011, a U.S. Court of Appeals remanded two provisions of the VTL final rule: the inspection requirement with respect to ship-to-shore VTLs and the total ban on platform container VTLs. OSHA is reopening the record to assess the technological feasibility of those two provisions.

These proposed regs are followed by those in the Proposed Rule stage which are in their comment period or are waiting for a Notice of Proposed Rulemaking (NPRM) which sets the comment period timetable.

• Consensus Standard Update — Signage (comment period ends July 15, 2013, with final rule expected to take effect on Sept. 11, 2013): OSHA would update references to consensus standards involving certain types of safety signage but would grandfather signs conforming to the current standard.
• Silica (NPRM July 2013): OSHA proposes to update the permissible exposure limit for silica for general industry. In the Fall 2012 Regulatory Agenda, OSHA expected to release the NPRM in May 2013.
• Improve Tracking of Injuries and Illnesses (NPRM July 2013): OSHA is proposing changes to its reporting system for occupational injuries and illnesses. A modernized electronic reporting system would be put in place.
• Beryllium (NPRM October 2013): Similar to the silica proposal, this would update the PEL for beryllium.
• Injury and Illness Prevention Program (NPRM January 2014): OSHA is developing a rule requiring employers to implement an I2P2 for their workplaces. These would be similar to safety management systems some companies already have in place.

Some other rules that are farther behind in the pipeline:

• Combustible Dust (small business review scheduled to start in November 2013): The U.S. Chemical Safety Board (CSB) completed a study of combustible dust hazards in late 2006, which identified 281 combustible dust incidents between 1980 and 2005 that killed 119 workers and injured another 718. Although OSHA can cite companies for combustible dust hazards, the agency doesn’t have a specific regulation addressing them.
• Review/Lookback of OSHA Chemical Standards (request for information scheduled for August 2013): The majority of OSHA’s Permissible Exposure Limits (PELs) were adopted in 1971, and only a few have been updated since then.

Safe Tools And Quick Fix Tool Care

Safe Tools
The first rule of tool safety is to buy good quality, as suggested at the beginning of this chapter. You don't have to buy the best, but lowest cost can often mean lowest value. The best value is typically higher-quality tools and equipment purchased at a discount. It's also important to use your tools correctly. It may be tempting to use a screwdriver as a chisel, but doing so can damage the tool and, more important, damage you.

Also, never remove the safety guards installed on power equipment, and always wear safety goggles when working with power equipment. Safety glasses should also be worn when sanding, filing, or doing any other job that produces flying particles. Make sure your safety glasses wrap around the sides to keep deflected particles from reaching your eyes from any angle.

Once you've purchased high-quality tools and learned how to use them properly, you're good to go -- right? Not quite. The most dangerous tool is one that isn't well maintained. A dull saw is less safe than a sharp one. A hammer with a loose handle can do more damage than one in good repair. A power tool with a frayed cord can electrocute you. So, be diligent about tightening loose parts, fixing damaged cords, and sharpening dull blades.

Quick Fix Tool Care

1. Quality tools aren't cheap. Fortunately, with care, they can last many years and be a better long-term investment than cheap tools. Here are some useful tips on tool care.
2. Protect your tools from moisture. Keep a thin coating of oil on metal parts, wrap them in plastic wrap, or keep carpenters' chalk or mothballs (both of which absorb moisture) in your toolbox.
3. A piece of garden hose slit open is a handy protective cover for the teeth of a handsaw between projects. Circular saw blades store conveniently in heavy shipping envelopes.
4. To remind yourself to unplug an electric drill when changing accessories, fasten the chuck key near the plug end of the cord.
5. Tack rags will last longer if they're stored in an airtight container to keep them from drying out. Airtight storage also prevents spontaneous combustion, which can be very dangerous. (This safety tip applies equally well to other rags, coveralls, work gloves, and any other clothes that might absorb flammable oils and solvents.)
6. Don't take a chance of hitting a thumb or finger when hammering a small brad, tack, or nail. Slip the fastener between the teeth of a pocket comb; the comb holds the nail while you hold the comb. A bobby pin or a paper clip can be used the same way as a comb.

Safe Ladders

A sturdy stepladder will make lots of quick fixes easier, from changing lightbulbs to painting a room to cleaning gutters to replacing a smoke alarm battery. If you don't already own one, get one. Invest in a good ladder, and use it for all those out-of-reach projects.

Most home-use ladders are made of wood or aluminum. Depending on quality, both types are reliable. Aluminum, however, weighs only 20 to 50 percent as much as wood, which means it's easier to take it in and out of storage or move it around. On most good ladders you'll find labels that indicate a rated strength. For example, a Type I industrial-grade ladder, rated at 250 pounds, is the strongest. A Type II commercial-grade ladder is rated at 225 pounds; Type III is rated at 200 pounds. Fortunately, each type has actually been successfully tested at four times its rated load. For around-the-house purposes, invest in security and durability and buy a Type II ladder. One that's 6 feet tall will do for most homeowners, but taller ones -- 8, 10, 12, and all the way up to 16 feet -- are available. For an extra measure of safety, get one with rubber or plastic feet so your ladder won't skid on hard floors.

If you're painting a ceiling from a single stepladder, you'll find yourself going up and down like a yo yo, constantly moving the ladder to reach unpainted areas. A safer alternative is to buy a second ladder of the same size. Then, using a pair of 2-by-8-foot boards, make a scaffold between them -- a platform from which you can paint for longer periods of time by moving from one end of the bridge to the other. For stability, don't make your scaffold higher than is absolutely necessary and no longer than 6 to 8 feet in length. Use C-clamps to fasten each end of the 2-by-8s to a rung of each ladder.

Using Ladders Safely

1. There's no such thing as an absolutely safe ladder. Gravity is always an unrelenting enemy. However, below are ways to greatly reduce your risk of accidents and injury with ladders.
2. Always open a stepladder to its fullest position, lock the spreader braces on each side in place, and pull down the bucket shelf.
3. Whether you are going up or coming down, always face the ladder head-on, and use both hands to hold onto the side rails or rungs.
4. Don't climb higher than two rungs from the top; don't sit or stand on the top or the bucket shelf.
5.  To keep yourself from overreaching and getting off balance, never let your navel go beyond either of the ladder's side rails.
6. If you must work on a ladder in front of a door, lock the door.
7. Put the paint can or tray on the bucket shelf before you climb the ladder. And don't go up the ladder with tools in your hand or in your pockets.
8. Always open a ladder to its fullest position and always face the ladder head-on.

 Electrical Safety

Electricity can help you -- or it can hurt you. An appliance can make your coffee in the morning. A frayed cord can electrocute you. Here are some rules for working safely with electricity.

• Never work on an electrical circuit that is live or attached to an electrical source. Unplug the circuit, trip the circuit breaker, or unscrew the fuse before you begin working.

• Use only equivalent replacement parts. That is, replace a controller with one that has the same function and rating. Don't replace a 10-amp appliance cord with one that is rated for 5 amps.

• Some appliances use capacitors, which are electrical components that store high voltage. Touching a charged capacitor, such as those in a microwave oven, can electrocute or burn you.

• Carefully check all loose wires for related damage or stress, and reconnect them using electrical tape, wire nuts, or other enclosing fasteners. Not only can a loose wire break an electrical circuit, it can also injure you if you touch it while it is energized or hot. Loose wires are caused by vibration or other factors.

• Most important, think before you act. Electricity follows strict laws. You must follow the same laws in order to repair electrical systems safely.

Using common sense and the right tools will help you tackle home improvement repairs or projects safely and with confidence.

Daily Safe : Radiation Safety Handling

Alpha particles ( a ) are relatively slow and heavy.
They have a low penetrating power - you can stop them with just a sheet of paper.
Alpha particles can not penetrate your skin. Due to the low penetrating power of Alpha particles, they are generally not a cause for concern, unless you ingest some material that emits Alpha radiation.
For the most part, materials that emit Alpha particles, also emit some Beta or Gamma radiation.

Beta particles ( b ) are fast, and light.
Beta particles have a medium penetrating power - they are stopped by a thin sheet of aluminum (such as aluminum foil) or plastic. Beta particles can penetrate deeply into your skin.

Gamma rays ( g ) have a high penetrating power - it takes a thick sheet of metal such as lead, or concrete to reduce them significantly.

Preparation

• Clearly label containers, equipment, and areas for the handling of radioisotopes with radioactive labeling tape. The labeling tape can be obtained from your institution stockroom or through an appropriate vendor. Minimize radioactive material work-space.
• Use absorbent material (benchcoat) and trays to confine spills and reduce the spread of potential contamination.
• Wear protective clothing. The minimum requirements include a laboratory coat, safety glasses and close-toed shoes. Wear disposable gloves, either single or double pair, depending on the radionuclide you are working with. Choose gloves that are appropriate for the chemical and other hazards in your experiment. If you are unsure about the type of protective glove to use call the Radiation Protection Office (RPO) at 495-2060.
• Traps to collect radioactivity may be necessary (as required under some permits) (e.g.: vacuum line traps). If a trap is not available, contact the RPO.
• Dedicate equipment such as pipettes and glassware to radioactivity work and avoid cross contamination.
• Plan your experiment so that mixed waste (i.e. hazardous chemical or biologically active combined with radioactivity) is not generated. If this cannot be avoided contact the Radiation Protection Office (RPO) for further assistance.

Equipment / SuppliesEquipment / Supplies

•     A Liquid Scintillation Counter for low energy beta radiation.
•     Portable Survey Meter with appropriate probe(s).
•     Disposable latex or plastic gloves.
•     Luxel Dosimeter (and finger ring, if assigned).
•     Lab coat, safety glasses, and close-toed shoes.
•     Containers for radioactive waste.
•     Pipettes dedicated to the use of your radionuclide.
•     Safety glasses (to protect from splash and shield from beta radiation).

Work Practices Work Practices

• Change your gloves often. Assume gloves are contaminated until proven otherwise. Do not leave the laboratory or touch things outside of the work space with potentially contaminated gloves. Remove gloves carefully from the inside out. Ensure that gloves are disposed of properly and wash hands immediately.
• Do not eat, drink, smoke, chew gum, or touch exposed areas of skin while working in a room where radioisotopes are handled. Be careful not to rub your eyes, scratch exposed areas of skin, or touch your hair when working with radioactive material.
• Use automatic or remote pipetting devices. NEVER pipette by mouth.
• Allow sufficient time for frozen stock solutions to thaw before attempting to withdraw an aliquot. If you are working with 35S-methionine, Cysteine, and Translabel® refer to the related worksheet for 35S volatility.
• Handle volatile compounds, which have the potential for vapor or gas release (such as Na125I or 35S-Methionine or Cysteine) in a functioning hood.
• Handle and dispose of spin (centrifuge) columns with care. Place used columns in a sealed container (capped tube or Ziploc® bag) prior to discarding into the radioactive waste.

Post-Work

• Promptly dispose of radioactive waste properly. Make a reasonable estimate of the amount of
• radioactivity in the waste and record on a radioactive waste tag.
• Lock-up and secure your radioactive stock solutions immediately after use.
• Survey yourself and work area for contamination with an appropriate survey meter. Decontaminate if necessary. Remove protective clothing and wash hands thoroughly with warm water and soap before leaving the laboratory.
• Note the results of your survey on your personal survey record of the work area. This is required if you are working with more than 1 mCi.
• Sink disposal must be done according to the approved guidelines. Do not exceed the posted daily limit for the radionuclide, unless otherwise authorized by the Radiation Safety Committee (RSC) in the permit.
• Participate in the bioassay program as requested by the Radiation Protection Office.

Basic Principles of Radiation Measurement : type of detector

Radiation entering the detector will ionize the gas and produce positive ions and negative ions (electrons). The number of ions to be generated is proportional to the energy of the radiation and inversely proportional to the gas ionization power. Gas ionization power range from 25 eV s.d. 40 eV. The ions produced inside the detector will contribute to the formation of an electrical pulse or electric current.

Primary ions produced by radiation will move towards the appropriate electrodes. The movement of ions will cause pulses or electric current. The movement of these ions above can take place between two electrodes when there are enough electric field. When the electric field the higher the kinetic energy of the ions will be even greater to be able to hold another ionization.

The ions produced by the primary ion is referred to as secondary ions. If the electric field between two electrodes the higher the number of ions produced by a radiation would be very much and called the 'avalanche'.

There are three types of detector gas field working on different areas which rooms ionization detector, proportional detectors, and detector Geiger Mueller (GM).

Room Ionization detectors (Ionization chamber)

As shown in the above gas characteristic curve, the number of ions produced in this area is relatively small so that a high pulse, when applying pulse measurement models, very low. Therefore, typically, measurements using ionization detectors applying current way. When you will use this detector pulse by pulse amplifier is needed is excellent. The advantage this detector is able to distinguish between the energy entering and working voltage required is not too high.

Proportional Detector

Compared with the above ionization region, the number of ions produced in the region is more so proportionately higher pulse will be higher. The detector is more often used for measurements by the pulse.

Seen on the characteristic curves above that the number of ions produced is proportional to the energy of the radiation, so that the detector is able to differentiate radiation energy. However, that is a loss, or a high number of ion pulses produced is strongly influenced by the working voltage and power voltage for this detector must be very stable.

Detector Geiger Mueller (GM)

The number of ions produced in this area very much, reaching a value of saturated, so the pulse is relatively high and require no amplifier pulse again. The main disadvantage of this detector is unable to distinguish the radiation energy into it, because regardless of the amount of energy it produces ions with saturated values. These detectors are the most commonly used detectors, because of the electronic terms is very simple, do not need to use the amplifier. Most of the equipment measuring radiation protection, which should be portable, made of Geiger Mueller detector.

Scintillation detectors

Scintillation detectors always consists of two parts, namely the scintillator and photomultiplier materials. Scintillator material is a solid substance, liquid or gas that will produce sparks of light when subject to ionizing radiation. Photomultiplier is used to change the spark of light generated scintillator material into electrical pulses. Radiation detection mechanisms scintillation detectors can be divided into two stages:

* The process of changing the radiation detector to spark a light in the scintillator material and

* The process of changing spark of light into electrical pulses in the photomultiplier tube

Scintillator material

Scintillation process in this material can be explained by Figure 4. In the crystal scintillator materials are ribbons or area named as the valence band and the conduction band are separated by a certain energy level. In the ground state, the ground state, all electrons in the valence band while the conduction band is empty. When there is the radiation that enters the crystal, there is a possibility that some of the energy will be absorbed by the electrons in the valence band, so it can jump into the conduction band. A few moments later the electrons return to the valence band with energy band activator materials while emitting sparks of light.

Spark of light is proportional to the amount of radiation energy absorbed and influenced by the type of material sintilatornya. The bigger the more spark energy is light. Sparks of light are then 'captured' by the photomultiplier.

 Here are some examples of scintillator materials are often used as a radiation detector.

Crystal NaI (Tl)

Crystalline ZnS (Ag)

Crystal Lii (Eu)

Organic scintillator

Liquid scintillator (liquid scintillation)

The detector is very special compared to the other types of detectors for liquid. Radioactive sample to be measured first dissolved into liquid scintillator so that the sample and detector into a single unit of a homogeneous solution. In this measurement geometry can achieve 100% efficiency because all the radiation emitted by the source will be "captured" by the detector. This method is needed to measure samples b low-energy radiation such as tritium and C14.

Issues that must be considered in this method is the reduced quenching the transparent nature of the solution (liquid scintillator) as it gets mixed samples. The more concentrated the sample concentration will deteriorate the level of transparency so that the spark produced light can not reach the photomultiplier.

Photomultiplier tubes

As discussed earlier, each scintillation detector consists of two parts, namely scintillator materials and photomultiplier tubes. If the scintillator material serves to convert radiant energy into light the spark photomultiplier tube is used to change the spark of light into a beam of electrons, which can be further processed as a credit / electric current.

Photomultiplier tube is made of a hollow tube with a light-proof photokatoda which serves as input on one end and there are several such electrons to double dinode contained in Figure 5. Photokatoda attached to the scintillator material, will emit electrons when it is light with a suitable wavelength. The resulting electrons are directed, with a potential difference, towards dinode first. Dinode it will radiate some secondary electrons when the electrons are.

Secondary electrons generated will go dinode dinode first second and then multiplied to dinode third and so that electrons are collected at the last dinode amount to very much. With a collection of electrons capacitor will be converted into electrical pulses.

Semiconductor Detectors

Semiconductor materials, which were found relatively more recent than the above two types of detectors, made from group IV elements in the periodic table, namely silicon or germanium. This detector has several advantages, namely more efficient than gas field detector, because it is made from solid, and has a better resolution than scintillation detectors.

Basically, insulating materials and semiconductor materials can not forward an electrical current. This is due to all the electrons in the valence band while the conduction band is empty. The difference in energy levels between the valence band and the conduction band in the insulator material is very large so it does not allow electrons to move to the conduction band (> 5 eV) as shown above. Instead, the difference is relatively small in the semiconductor material (<3 eV) to allow electrons to jump into the conduction band where to get additional energy.

Radiant energy entering the semiconductor material is absorbed by the material so that some electrons can move from the valence band to the conduction band. When in between the two ends of the semiconductor materials are a potential difference, there will be an electric current flow. So in this detector, the radiation energy is converted into electrical energy.

The connection is made by connecting the semiconductor N-type semiconductors of the type P (PN junction). The positive pole of the external voltage is connected to the negative pole, while N-type to P type as shown in Figure 7. This causes the charge carriers are attracted to the positive (negative pole) while the negative charge carriers are attracted to the lower (positive pole), forming (depletion layer) layer charge on the connection PN empty. With the blank layer charge this then there will be no electric current. If there is ionizing radiation that enters the empty layer this charge will be formed new ions, electrons and holes, which will move to the poles of positive and negative. Additional electrons and holes is what will lead to the formation of pulses or electric current.

Because of the power or the energy required to produce these ions is lower than the ionization processes in the gas, then the number of ions produced by the same energy will be more. This is why semiconductor detectors are very meticulous in distinguishing the radiation energy about him or known to have high resolution. As an illustration, scintillation detectors for gamma radiation typically has a resolution of 50 keV, that is, the detector is able to distinguish the energy of the radiation that enters the two when both are having different radiation energies greater than 50 keV. Medium semiconductor detectors for gamma radiation typically has a resolution of 2 keV. So it looks that much more thoroughly semiconductor detectors to distinguish radiation energy.

In fact, the ability to distinguish the less energy required in use in the field, such as radiation surveys. However, for other purposes, for example to determine the type of radionuclides or to determine the type and grade of material, this capability is absolutely necessary.

The weakness of the semiconductor detector is more expensive, its use should be very careful because it is easily damaged and some types of semiconductor detectors must be cooled to the temperature of liquid nitrogen dewar necessitating large enough.

Excellence - Weakness Detector

From the discussion above shows that each of the radiation is converted into an electrical pulse with a height proportional to the energy of radiation. It is a phenomenon that is ideal because it is in fact not the case. There are several characteristics that distinguish one type of detector with other detectors are efficiency, speed and resolution.

The efficiency of the detector is a value that indicates the ratio between the number of pulses of electricity generated to the amount of radiation detector receives. Detector efficiency value is determined by the geometry and density of the detector material. The geometry will determine the amount of radiation that can be 'captured' so that the surface area of ​​the detector, the higher the efficiency. While the density of the material affects the amount of radiation detectors that can interact to produce an electrical signal. Materials that have a density detector closer will have a higher efficiency as more radiation interacts with the material.

Speed ​​detector indicates the time interval between the arrival of the radiation and the formation of an electrical pulse. Interact with the radiation detector speed also affect the measurement because if the detector response is not fast enough, while the intensity of the radiation is so high it will be a lot of radiation that are not measurable despite the detector.

Detector resolution is the ability of the detector to distinguish between adjacent radiation energy. A detector is expected to have a very small resolution (high resolution) so as to distinguish accurately the radiation energy. Resolution of the detector caused by the statistics of events that occur in the process of conversion of radiation energy, noise from electronic circuits, as well as the instability of the measurement conditions.

Another aspect to be considered is the construction of the detector because of the complicated construction or design of the detector will be more easily damaged and usually also more expensive.

The following table shows the characteristics of several types of detectors are generally based on several considerations above.

Selection of detector should consider the advantages and disadvantages as well as the specifications table above. For example, the detector used in portable measurement tool (easy to carry) is a best gas field detector, the detector used in measuring instruments for natural radiation (very low intensity) is preferably scintillation detector, while the detectors in spectroscopy systems for materials should analyze semiconductor detector .

Safety Regulation : Occupational Health and Safety Law

Occupational health and safety (K3) is an instrument that protects workers, the company, the environment, and society about the dangers of workplace accidents. Protection is a basic human right that must be met by the company. K3 aims to prevent, reduce, and even nullify the risk of workplace accidents (zero accident). The application of this concept should not be taken as prevention of occupational accidents and occupational diseases that are expensive (cost) of the company, but should be regarded as a form of long-term investments that benefited the rich in the future.

How K3 legal perspective? There are three main aspects, namely K3 legal norms of safety, occupational health, and the real work. Safety norms is a means or a tool to prevent occupational injury allegedly caused by the negligence and work environment that is not conducive. The concept is expected to nullify accident thus preventing the occurrence of defects or death to workers, then place and prevent damage to work equipment. This concept also prevents contamination of the environment and communities where health kerja.Norma expected to be a powerful instrument to create and maintain the health status of work as high.

K3 to the prevention and eradication of occupational diseases, such as noise, lighting (light), vibration, humidity, and others that can cause hearing damage, respiratory problems, lung damage, blindness, damage to body tissue caused by beam ultraviolet, skin cancer, infertility, and others. Norms relating to labor management. K3 in this context relates to the matter of setting work hours, shifts, working women, youth employment, overtime arrangements, analysis and management of the environment, and others. These things have a close correlation to the events of the accident.
The existence of K3 actually coincided with the industrial revolution in Europe, notably the UK, Germany and France as well as the industrial revolution in the United States. This era marked a shift in the use of large-scale production machines replacing human labor. Workers simply acts as the operator. The use of the machines produced goods in the amount doubled compared to that done earlier workers. IndustriNamun Revolution, the impact of the use of the machines is unemployment and the risk of accidents in the workplace. It can cause physical disability and death for workers. Also it can cause a huge loss for the company. The industrial revolution also marked by increasingly found chemical compounds that can endanger the safety and physical and mental health workers (occupational accident) as well as the community and the environment.

At the beginning of the industrial revolution, K3 has not become an integral part of the company. In an era in workplace accidents only regarded as accidents or occupational risk (personal risk), not the company's responsibility. This view is reinforced by the concept of common law defense (CLD), which consists of contributing negligence (contributions negligence), fellow servant rule (employment provisions), and the risk Assumption (assumption of risk) (Tono, Muhammad: 2002). Then this concept evolved into the K3 employers liability is the responsibility of employers, workers / employees, and the general public that is outside the context of Indonesia kerja.Dalam, K3 consciousness actually been around since the Dutch colonial government. For example, in 1908 the Dutch parliament urged the Dutch government to impose K3 in the Dutch East Indies were marked by the publication Veiligheids Reglement, State Gazette No.. 406 In 1910. 

Furthermore, the Dutch colonial government issued several legal products that provide protection for the safety and health are regulated separately by each economic sector. Some of them are related to the transportation sector that regulates traffic perketaapian as stated in the Algemene Regelen Betreffende de Aanleg en de Exploitate Spoor van voor Algemene en Tramwegen Bestmend Verkeer in Indonesia (general rules concerning the establishment and firm Trains and Trams for general traffic Indonesia) and Gazette 1926 No.. 334, Schepelingen Ongevallen Regeling 1940 (Ordinance Accident Seafarers), State Gazette No. 1930. 225, Veiligheids Reglement (Regulation of Employment Security in Factory and Workplace), and so on. High Concern In the early days of independence, K3 aspects of strategic issues and not become a part of humanity and justice. This is understandable because the Government of Indonesia is still in transition structuring political life and national security. Meanwhile, a new national economic wheel movement initiated by the national government and the private sector.

New K3 is a major concern in the 70's in line with the height of the capital investment and the adoption of national industry (manufacturing). This development has encouraged the government regulation in the areas of employment, including setting K3 issue. It is stipulated in Law no. 1 Year 1070 on Occupational Safety, while labor legislation earlier as Law Number 12 Year 1948 on Labor, Law no. 14 Year 1969 on Basic Provisions Regarding Labor does not state explicitly classified as K3 concept kerja.Setiap norm workplace or company must implement K3 program. The workplace is very broad dimension covers all workplaces, whether on land, underground, above ground, in water, in the air or in space.

K3 legal arrangements in the context of the above is in accordance with the sectors / areas of business. For example, Law no. 13 Year 1992 on Perkerataapian, Law no. 14 Year 1992 on Traffic and Transportation (LLAJ), Law no. 15 Year 1992 on Aviation and its other implementing regulations. In addition to the above nexus sekor, regulations related to the K3 is also found in other sectors such as mining, construction, agriculture, manufacturing industry (factories), fisheries, and other lain.Di current era of globalization, national development very closely with the development global issues such as human rights (Human Rights), the environment, poverty, and labor. Global competition is not only limited to the quality of the goods but also include the quality of care and services. Many multinational companies are only willing to invest in a country if that country has a high concern for the environment. Also sensitivity to the workers and the poor. Because it is not impossible if there is a company that cares about K3, put this in the first place as a condition of investment.

Dozen things parents can do to solve the preschool whimper

12 things parents can do to solve the preschool whimper :

1. Perform introspection.
Parents reflect on what he had done in assisting the child to know his world, already tepatkah or missing. Remember, parenting is an example / model closest to the child.

2. Spend time with children.
Actually, not the length of time together, but more on the quality of care you provide. Although only briefly but if sincere, it's better than the old but memorable imposed. If you are really tired and need to rest a little, well frankly tell the child, "Honey, Mama was so tired. Mama a quick break ya, later that night we play together." But remember, the promise must be kept. Once broken, the child would be difficult to believe with you.

3. Give understanding.
Place the child as a partner who can be consulted. Use language that is simple and easy to understand children. During the discussion, ask what his hopes of children. If you need to make a deal bersama.Misal, "Mom should not work, but on holidays, when Mama specially given to Brother." Thus the child continues to feel loved and appreciated.

4. Teach your child to express feelings in a positive way.
Keterampila Train a child in speech, so in the end the child can express what she feels better. Although children may not understand the feelings, you should still be done. Melati child expresses feelings from an early age will help children to be more assertive later.

5. Encourage children to talk or discussion.
Encourage children to talk when the whining / crying has subsided or are relaxed. Kala talk or discussion, use simple language and easy to understand. Reveal what is your desire. For example, "If Big Brother wants something, to say yes, not by whining. Nah, brother wants what? Come on, talking to Mama. If sister cry, Mama know how."

6. Teach children to resist the urge.
Children should know, not all wishes can be fulfilled. You'd better come clean, why can not fulfill her desire.

7. Pay attention to each child demonstrated good behavior.
Praise when he was not fussy or when he spoke well and express that you are happy. That way kids learned that good behavior endeared people around him. He also knows, to get the attention can be done in a better way, not with a whimper.

8. Ignore the bad behavior of children.
Ignoring a child who was crying / fussing also required. Here children learn, by whining or crying, he would not gain anything. Later when her tears had subsided, only you go and ask for whining. If you are too hebih or rush to pay attention, the child will learn that crying is a way to get prompt attention from people around.

9. Be firm and consistent.
When children want something and you do not allow, then Hold on, even if the child began to cry and whine. Because, once you are no firm or consistent, the child will learn that whining is the way lo get what you want. So, when children behave negatively, never hooked. After a long time the child will learn that his way is not going to work "steal" the attention of parents. For this to be effective should be done by anyone who is in the immediate neighborhood, both caregivers, grandparents and uncle-aunt, and other family members.

10. Divert attention.
When children whine, you could also persuade him to do other activities that attract attention / interest, such as reading a book, looking at the plants in the garden, playing in the yard. Sure, in a way that is proportional to persuade, not excessive.

11. No label.
Label a child with the words "sissy" does not necessarily make children so whiny. On the contrary, often labeled, children become increasingly lazy to change his behavior. He'll think, "What changed so baseball crybaby? I've been labeled a whiny child, too!" So, avoid the label. Better, change the child's behavior in a positive direction.

12. Avoid violence.
Both physical abuse (hitting) and nonphysical (scold, berate) should be avoided, because it is not solve the problem but it adds to the problem. Children are beaten not necessarily be whining subsides, usually even harder. Not a deterrent effect but the lessons learned that can be passed to solve the problem of violence. Remember, kids are great imitator. Whatever is done will be a model for her parents.

Safe Safety Search For Your Kids and More Internet Safety Tips

Using the safe browsing feature above ensures that Google SafeSearch is always "on". There are 3 levels of safe search filtering: Off (no filtering), Moderate (filters images only), and Strict Filtering (filters both text & images).

When conducting searches apart from this site on Google's main page, check your computer settings.

To implement SafeSearch on every computer in your school, simply have all students conduct Google Internet Searches from SafeSearchKids.com

Internet Safety Tips for Kids - Safer Search at Home and at School!

• Implement the use of Google SafeSearch by bookmarking this page here for your kids to use whenever they search online. Using this website ensures that Google SafeSearch is always turned on and always set to the most strict filtering setting.
• If your child is conducting searches on Google's main site at google.com, make sure your search settings are set to "strict filtering" at http://www.google.com/preferences.
• Do not replace parental or teacher supervision of computer use at home or at school with this safe search engine or any other. No search filtering software or tool is perfect.
• A good rule of thumb is to not allow internet use when a child is home alone without proper supervision, even with this Google for Kids search engine.
• Keep your computer in an open area. If your computer is in a home office, make a rule that doors are always left open when online.  Learn about YouTube parental controls.
• It's not a good idea to allow computers or laptops in your kids bedrooms, even while using the free internet filter, unless they are close to the main area of the house such as the kitchen or living room with doors left open.
• Be careful of allowing your kids to search for images online.  Use Googe Safe Image Search for added protection.
• Do not allow internet use after you've gone to bed at night no matter how good your computer security software is or how confident you are in kids search engines.
• Learn how to turn on safe search for times when your children are not using this website to conduct their searches.
• Consider installing a safe browser for kids or a complete security program such as Safe Eyes providing anti-virus protection as well as internet filtering.
• Do not allow file sharing programs to be installed on your computer. Only use safe and secure music download programs from trusted sources on the internet. Learn more about safe music downloading.
• If your child is searching for videos on YouTube, learn how you can activate YouTube parental controls.
• Have an open conversation with your kids about safe browsing and computer use. With freedom comes responsibility.
• Report inappropriate website that appear in our search results to create the safest search engine possible.

Internet Security Software Solutions - Internet Safety for Kids!
This site offers two computer security solutions to assist in kids internet safety on the internet, whether at home or in schools. The goal is ensure internet security for kids as well as computer security on or offline. We understand computer security is a top priority for children and teens alike.

1. The first solution is safe browsing implementing the use of Google SafeSearch for Kids. Simply use the search box above where safe search is always turned on, or click here for our secure safe search page with less graphics. Bookmark google safe search on your child's computer at home or at school.
2. The second way to protect your kids online is family internet filtering. Implment the use of Internet Security Software which blocks mature websites. For something more simple, we recommend KIDO'Z - the safe browser for kids.  KIDO'Z includes pre-loaded safe websites with the ability for parents to add additional favorites.

Safety Zone and Warning : A Dangerous Form Of Shock Theraphy-Seofaty.com

JAKARTA, Indonesia—Indonesian officials are scrambling to find a solution to the latest dangerous trend in Jakarta: people who roam the city's railway tracks looking for free "electric therapy."

As many as several dozen people per day intentionally try to electrocute themselves along the rails, according to local media reports, because they believe it can cure all kinds of diseases, from diabetes to high-blood pressure to insomnia. When trains approach, people briefly step aside but rush back quickly into a sleeping position on the tracks to feel electrical currents they believe will cure their ailments.

Residents say the unorthodox—and dangerous—practice started with a local rumor about a man who tried to kill himself by lying on the tracks. He was fed up after suffering paralysis from a stroke and medical treatment failed to cure his symptoms. He allegedly decided that being crushed by a train would be better than continuing his misery. But while lying on the tracks, he suddenly felt cured, according to the hearsay. It's unclear whether any elements of the story were true.

Dozens of Indonesians intentionally electrocute themselves on rail tracks every day, local media reports say.

As word of the supposed miracle spread, train tracks in slum areas in northern Jakarta became trendy as impromptu clinics. Until recently, more than 50 people would show up at the city's Rawa Buaya tracks every day. The numbers have dropped recently, since police and the state-run railroad erected a warning sign, but some people still come, convinced the tracks can cure them.

There is no medical or scientific evidence to support the treatment, says Murti Utami, a spokeswoman for Indonesia's Health Ministry. Officials have forbidden people to enter the site and threatened penalties of up to three months in prison or fines of $1,800, but it is difficult to police train tracks in Jakarta, which stretch out in all directions across the city, often with people living bunched up alongside.

"We encourage these people to seek professional medical help," Ms. Utami said. Indonesia offers free health care for its citizens, so anyone in need should go to a government clinic, she said.

However, Indonesians have long complained about the quality of care in government-run clinics, which they say are under-funded and crowded. Like many other developing countries, Indonesia continues to have high rates of preventable disease such as dengue and tuberculosis. Indonesian health standards in some instances lag behind neighboring countries, with high maternal mortality, according to the World Health Organization. Many people can't afford more sophisticated medical care than is available in government clinics.

  Moreover, Indonesians often flock to quacks and quirky cures. In February, four people died in a stampede when thousands of people sought to meet a boy shaman called Ponari—believed to be in possession of a special healing stone—after he was struck by lightning (he survived).

The 12-year-old boy rose to fame after he began practicing as a child healer with what many believe were supernatural powers capable of curing any illness. Thousands flocked to his home in Kedungsari village, in Jombang, East Java. His healing powers were supposedly delivered by dipping the stone into water, then rubbing it against ailing body parts. People collected water from his shower in the hopes of obtaining a cure for their illnesses, even though there was no medical explanation for the treatment. Many patients have claimed to be cured by the practice, however.

Indeed, some Indonesians put more trust in their faith healers and herbal-medicine doctors than in Western medicine. Indonesian officials believe education would help overcome the distrust of Western medical practices, Ms. Utami said.

Seo Google Safety : Calibration Basic|Information|Safety|Tips

Introduction

It is quite unlikely that you will ever use an absolute method for gas detection. Rather, you will employ any one of dozens of “relative” [or “reference,” but not necessarily EPA Reference] methods—that is, methods that produce some output that must be calibrated against a known standard. Then, its display can be directly read out in units of concentration, usually parts-per-million (ppm).

Even though proper calibration is 90% of successful gas detection, it is a subject that has been neglected—often purposely—by the majority of instrument manufacturers. There’s a good reason for this, of course: Proper calibration can often be difficult and expensive. But, we’re getting a bit ahead of ourselves.
Gas Blends in Cylinders

Early occupational health toxic gas detection focused on carbon monoxide (CO) and hydrogen sulfide (H2S). The calibration standards were supplied as gas blends in cylinders, and in the case of CO, at least, things worked out pretty well. This is because CO is not very reactive, and, within reason, maintains a stable concentration in the cylinder, as the pressure drops with use.

On the other hand, H2S is very reactive, and the original simplistic techniques used to create the cylinder gas blends could not provide a stable product. The problems observed with H2S blends were soon seen in blends for many other toxics. To make matters worse, improper analogies were drawn between experiences in combustible gas detection and toxic gas detection, establishing a false sense of security about poorly prepared gas blends.

In fact, other than the obvious point that both combustible and toxic gas detection get involved with detecting gases, the two fields of endeavor could not be more different.

The combustible gases of interest are nearly all stable (unless they are ignited by some external source), while nearly all toxic gases are unstable, and in many cases are extremely reactive. Most importantly, though, combustible gas detection is done in percent level concentrations, while toxic gas detection is done in parts-per-million, and even parts-per-billion concentrations—10,000 and 10 million times lower, respectively!

Fortunately, calibration gas blending technology has improved, encompassing specialized techniques for passivating the cylinders, as well as logging experience to determine how long a blend must age to become stable, and how long stability can be guaranteed. Much of the technological development has been done with aluminum cylinders, since this material seems to be less prone to wall effects and unwanted chemical reactions than steel.

Interscan can recommend good gas blend suppliers, but no matter what company you choose, the following points are important:

Order the blend so that the concentration is about 50% of the instrument’s measuring range.Ensure that the blend’s analysis is ± 2% accurate (or better).Insist on NIST–traceability.Obtain a written guarantee as to how long the blend will be stable.Since most of the cost of the blend is in the analysis labor, order the largest cylinder you can use. Stay away from disposable cylinders, which just become a solid waste problem. After all, we ARE in the environmental business!Before you order, ask for references for the exact blend, or one that is similar, and check them.

Permeation Devices

Some material courtesy of VICI Metronics

Certain toxic gases are not well-suited to being stored in cylinders, and cylinder blends are cumbersome to re-standardize, in that a separate (usually wet chemical) analytical method is required. In addition, some instrument users need a source for several different calibration standards. These situations call for permeation devices.

Permeation devices are small, inert capsules containing a pure chemical compound in a two phase equilibrium between its gas phase and its liquid or solid phase. At a constant temperature, the device emits the compound through its permeable portion at a constant rate. This rate can always be determined via differential weighing at constant temperature. Permeation devices are typically inserted into a carrier flow to generate test atmospheres for calibrating gas analyzer systems.

These devices are discussed in some detail in our Tech Center. Typical applications for Interscan analyzers include calibration for bromine, chlorine, formaldehyde, hydrazine, hydrogen bromide, and hydrogen chloride. Many Interscan customers who do not wish to perform their own permeation device calibration—although it is always recommended to calibrate on site—can take advantage of our Electronic Calibration Service (ECS).

Note that having calibration facilities on site provides the best possible answer to the question “How do I know that this monitoring system actually works?” You can challenge the system with a known concentration of gas at any time.
Zero Gas

As you can imagine, if your measurement range is in the low ppm (or less), accurately zeroing the instrument is of vital importance. Consider that it is not a trivial matter to remove contaminants such as carbon monoxide from air below tenths of a ppm.

Zero air can be obtained from the same vendors who manufacture gas blends. We would make the following recommendations:

• Tell your supplier your target gas and measuring range, and have him suggest the proper zero gas for your application.
• Ask for a written analysis of the zero gas. Ideally, there will be specific information and not just a series of “less thans.”
• As we noted for your calibration gas, before you order, ask for references for applications as close as possible to your own, and check them.

Hard Cases

There are compounds that will present challenges. Hydrazine, for example, done correctly, requires an expensive and elaborate set-up, and a skilled operator. Chlorine dioxide is unstable, and although in situ calibration methods are available, great care is required to produce accurate results. Known concentrations of ozone can be generated, but it is not cheap.
How Frequently Should You Calibrate?

In general, the lower your measuring range, and the greater accuracy you desire, then the more frequently you should calibrate. Calibration monthly is a good median recommendation, and bi-monthly is even better. When we say “calibration,” we mean a good patient effort, that allows for sensor and instrument stabilization, to get a good, solid, reproducible reading. So-called bump tests, that challenge the instrument with some unknown, but high concentration of gas prove little, and can often be misleading. For the most part, these are NOT recommended.

In certain cases, less frequent calibration will still afford satisfactory results. Feel free to discuss this at any time with our service department.
In Conclusion…

The bad news is that calibration for some chemicals can be difficult, yet it is essential for proper gas detection. The good news is that we are here to help.

Goggle safety Education : Safety Device / How To select Gas Detectors / Safety Goggles/ safety

Gas detectors have been around for a long time, starting with that infamous methane sniffing canary, which sadly was a one-shot device, which when subjected to methane, tended to die rather quickly with no audio and visual alarm capabilities other than a slight cheep and a total lack of motion. Fortunately technology has advanced significantly and we find ourselves at this point in time with some very sophisticated electronic equipment. But even the most sophisticated technology is useless if the sensors used are unable to detect the gases present. The three main atmospheric hazards that you test for prior to and throughout a confined space entry are:

Combustibles (Flammables)
Eg: Methane

• Propane
• Gasoline
• Various other site-specific hydrocarbons (specific to your industry)

Oxygen – Deficiency and enrichment

Toxics
Eg: Hydrogen Sulfide

• Carbon Monoxide
• Toxic Hydrocarbons
• Various other site-specific toxics (specific to your industry)

Depending on its sensor configuration, proper gas detection equipment can help identify the hazard
and protect your workers. Selecting a gas detector should be based on the hazard faced. Unfortunately far too many purchasers make one of the largest and most crucial single equipment expenditures without really understanding what they are buying. Sensors and their capabilities are the single most important factor when choosing a gas detector, yet more often than not, decisions are based on size,
price, bells and whistles and other such features that have nothing to do with the instrument’s detecting abilities. Gas detectors come in a variety of sizes, shapes, colours and sensor configurations. For confined space work, it is necessary to monitor for oxygen deficiency/enrichment, combustible gases and toxics. Therefore an instrument capable of dealing with these three hazards is necessary.

SENSOR TECHNOLOGY
Combustible Gas Sensors
a) Catalytic Combustible Gas Sensors.
These sensors look for explosive atmospheres. They detect combustible gases by causing an actual
combustion of gases within the sensor chamber. Catalytic sensors offer good linearity, and can react to most combustible gases. However, as resistance change to %LEL is quite small, they work better in concentrations between 1,000 and 50,000 PPM. They do not measure trace amounts of gas (under 200 PPM) and therefore are of no use in determining toxic levels. The disadvantages are:

• They must have a minimum of 14% oxygen content in the air to work accurately the sensor can be damaged by lead or silicone or other catalytic poisons
• the readings can be affected by humidity and water vapour condensation they respond poorly to low energy hydrocarbons such as oil vapours, kerosene, diesel fuel and commercial
• jet fuels
• they tend to loose their linearity after a year or so
• they are not recommended for use in an acetylene atmosphere

The flame arrestor will prevent ignition of most gases except acetylene outside the sensor. It is extremely important to check the approvals for which type of hazardous locations the detector can function in. Most portable gas detectors today will be certified for service is Class I, Div I, Group ABCD atmospheres.

b) Metallic Oxide Semiconductor (MOS) Combustible Gas Sensor MOS or “Solid State” Combustible Gas Sensors have been around for years. This sensor has a long operation life (3 to 5 years), is very rugged and will recover better from high concentrations of a gas that could damage other types of sensors. There are also disadvantages:

• MOS sensors also require oxygen to work accurately, although not as much as the catalytic
• some sensor’s heating elements have a high demand for power which requires larger battery packs
• the readings can be affected by humidity and water vapour condensation
• the MOS sensor may respond to many VOCs, HFCs and solvents, but is not specific to any single compound.

c) Infra-Red Combustible Sensors
Recently Infra-Red Sensors have begun appearing in some instruments. They work well in low oxygen levels or acetylene atmospheres; however, they are quite expensive. These sensors work by reflecting light off a mirror and measuring the amount of light adsorbed during refraction. Infrared sensors typically require a constant flow across the sensing assembly and may be slow to clear from alarm. They are unable to detect hydrogen. An Infra-Red sensor calibrated for a simple hydrocarbon such as Methane or Ethane will not be accurate for vapour of higher molecular weight hydrocarbons, solvents or fuels.

Toxic Sensors
a) Electrochemical (Wet Chem) Toxic Sensors
These sensors react to a specific chemical (substance). Chemically specific sensors are available for up to 30 different gases including chlorine, ammonia, carbon monoxide, carbon dioxide, nitrogen dioxide, nitric oxide, hydrogen cyanide, hydrogen sulfide and sulfur dioxide. The manufacturer’s technical information will indicate what sensors are available for their unit.

4 SENSOR PORTABLE
COMB, H2S, CO, O2
These sensors have very good linearity, which makes them very accurate for the substance they will react to. They can measure either large or small quantities and these sensors have a typical life span  of approximately 1 year for many toxic gases and up to two years for hydrogen sulfide and carbon monoxide. As with all sensors, Wet Chem sensors have their limitations. The electrolytic fluid can freeze when left in environments having temperatures lower than 0 degrees C. Some chemical sensors may be adversely affected by altitude as they may be pressure sensitive. Abnormal readings are another issue with regards to Wet Chem sensors. Abnormal readings are generally readings that don’t make sense. For instance you are working in a sanitary sewer and your instrument is showing a CO reading of 300 PPM (current TWA in Ontario is 35 PPM) and a low reading (below the TWA of 10 PPM) of hydrogen sulfide. What you likely have is an interference from the hydrogen sulfide. Some electrochemical carbon monoxide sensors are subject to interference from low levels of  hydrogen sulfide. The knowledge that carbon monoxide is not a common occurrence in sanitary sewer applications (whereas hydrogen sulfide is) would lead you to consider that you are probably having an interference problem. In some instances, oxidizers like chlorine, chlorine dioxide and ozone can cause opposite readings on such toxic sensors such as carbon monoxide and hydrogen sulfide. Awareness of the hazards in your workplace, some basic understanding of chemistry, knowing what interfering gases adversely affect your unit and strict testing protocols will minimize this problem.


b) Metallic Oxide Semiconductor (MOS) Toxic Broad Range Gas Sensors
There are a number of different MOS sensors on the market and one has been developed for detecting toxic gases. Its make-up and operation is similar to the one used for the detection of combustible gases. However, the MOS broad range toxic sensor is capable of reacting to low PPM levels of wide range of toxic gases including carbon monoxide, hydrogen sulfide, ammonia, styrene, toluene, gasoline and many other hydrocarbons and solvents. MOS sensors cannot detect carbon dioxide or sulfur dioxide. The sensor is incapable of telling you what gas you have encountered or the concentration, only that the atmosphere may be hazardous to your health.

C) Photo Ionization Detectors (PID’s)
Industrial Hygienists, Safety and Environmental professionals and others have used Photo ionization sensor technology for evaluating atmospheric hazards in the workplace since the 1960’s. Life expectancy of these sensors is 1-3 years and costs range between $300 and $1400 for lamp replacement. They are usually too costly to use in a multi-sensor instrument. Oxygen Sensors
Oxygen sensors are the only true chemically-specific sensors. They are similar to the electrochemical (Wet Chem) sensors described previously. They are also susceptible to freezing, are sometimes  affected by altitude and have a nominal operational life of one to two years. Never use an oxygen sensor to detect toxic gases. It is true that a toxic gas will displace the oxygen in a confined space. However, it takes 60,000 PPM of any gas to lower the oxygen from 20.9% (normal) to 19.5% (alarm point). More importantly, 60,000 PPM of any toxic gas will kill you.

DESIGNING A GAS DETECTOR
Let’s build a gas detector for confined space work. To start out it will require a combustible sensor. We previously described the three types of combustible sensors available and their features. However, for confined space work, any of the three technologies will provide adequate protection. Secondly, we need an oxygen sensor to detect both oxygen enrichment and deficiency. There are several manufacturers of oxygen sensors and while they may all look different, they are essentially the same technology and will work well. To complete this instrument we will require a toxic sensor(s). The key to safe confined space gas detection lies in these toxic sensors. There are two main sensor types used in multi-sensor instrmuments electrochemical (Wet Chem) and Broad Range (Solid State MOS).
To select the correct toxic sensor we need to evaluate our confined spaces. If your area of work is an industrial site, where the toxic gases are known or can be controlled, then a chemically specific toxic sensor can be chosen (providing a sensor exists for that gas hazard). Manufacturers produce gas detectors that are capable of supporting one or two of these chemically specific sensors. Some instruments are available with a range of plug-in sensors that can be changed in the field without fuss or calibration. Other instruments must be ordered with the specific toxic sensor(s) you require. However, there is a limit to the sensors available and, if toxic hydrocarbons or solvents are a concern (common to municipal water and waste water systems as well as industrial applications), then the broad range (MOS) type may be your best bet. If you are in an area where the toxics are unknown or cannot be controlled, such as storm and sanitary sewers, pumping stations, waste treatment plants, industrial sites with toxic hydrocarbons and the like, then the broad range (MOS) type is your best solution. Unlike the chemically specific electrochemical sensors, these sensors cannot differentiate one toxic gas from another but they will tell you whether it is safe to enter or it is time to get out. The broad range sensors have their limitations as well and cannot detect any of the dioxides, i.e.:
carbon dioxide, sulphur dioxide. It must be noted that a gas detector with a combustible sensor
will not protect you from toxic levels of hydrocarbons. A classic example is gasoline. Gasoline used to have a TWA of 900 PPM. It is now considered a carcinogen. A combustible gas detector, calibrated to methane, will not alarm on gasoline until around 50% of the LEL or 5000 to 7000 PPM. This is well in excess of the old TWA and is certainly an
even bigger problem now that it is rated as a carcinogen. Regardless of its cancer causing issues, this level can cause a worker to be rendered unconscious, potentially causing death through drowning or falling. The only toxic sensors capable of detecting these low levels of hydrocarbons are the broad  range.


SAMPLING METHODS
In confined space testing it is important that the operator know how the sensor comes in contact (operation) with the atmosphere. There are three primary means of exposing the sensor to the  atmospheresample draw, diffusion and a detachable remote diffusion sensor assembly. There are strengths and weakness in all systems. Selection should be based upon need, not availability. Sample Draw The most common form of sampling a confined space is the sample draw method. The  advantage of this method is that any monitoring is performed outside the space. With a sample draw system, a pump moves the sample from the atmosphere and draws it through a hollow tube to the sensor. The pump can either be a “bulb” hand aspirator which requires squeezing or an internal motorized sample pump. Drawing the sample to the detector protects the tester by eliminating the need to enter the space and limits any movement of the door/cover to the space that may create a spark, which could ignite flammable gases that may collect around the entry point. For these reasons, the sample draw method is recommended when conducting your pre-entry test. The primary  disadvantage of this method is sample dilution. The tube leaking or using a tube over 12’ in length may reduce the concentration of some contaminant to the point where the readings presented are inaccurate. Other problems may include leaking pumps, cumbersome sample lines, and in some environments, the sample line may plug due to sludge, dirt or condensate icing. A disadvantage of the manual sample draw methods is the effort involved moving the air sample along the tube to the sensor. A general rule of thumb is that it takes 3 pump strokes to move the sample 1 foot. If your line is 12’, it will take 36 pump strokes to get the sample to the sensor, then the sampling must continue for up to 3 minutes to ensure a proper undiluted sample. If you are using a bulb hand aspirator strong
wrists are both a requirement and the end result of a lot of entries.


Sensor Operation

5 SENSOR PORTABLE
O2, COMB, H2S, CO, MOS TOXIC
Most gas detector sensors operate by diffusion. Diffusion works by air being absorbed into the sensor
cell. Electronic gas detectors rely heavily on diffusion sampling. The atmosphere must be brought to the gas sensors by the aforementioned sample draw (aspiration) or by lowering the gas detector into atmosphere. Some manufacturers offer a detachable remote sensor assembly as a means of remote sampling. Advantages of this technology include the lack of pumps and moving parts, much faster response time than aspiration and wires can carry the information with no potential of diluted readings. The sample method is still diffusion but the sensors are lowered into the atmosphere to be tested. Once the atmosphere has been tested by aspiration and/or remote sensors, the gas detector can be worn by the worker for the duration. Because each sampling method has its own strengths and weaknesses, all techniques are used to monitor the atmosphere. The sample draw is used for the pre-entry test that occurs just inside the space at the doorway. (suggestion: use a 6’ or shorter tube). Diffusion sampling occurs at all other times. Regardless of sampling techniques, spaces two to three meters deep should be tested top and bottom before entering. Spaces four to five meters deep should be tested top, middle and bottom before entering. Calibration/Bump Test All portable gas detectors should be calibrated according to the manufacturers recommendations. Not calibrating or bump testing a gas detector on a regular basis is an invitation to disaster. Sensors and/or electronics can, and do fail and it is only prudent to check your instrument on a regular basis.
a) Bump Test
A bump or field test is the application of a known gas concentration in excess of the calibrated alarm
point of the instrument. When this gas is applied to the gas detector it should trip the alarm point ensuring that the instrument is functioning correctly. If it does not then it indicates that a re-calibration is necessary. Multiple gas mixtures are available that allow you to do a simultaneous Bump test with one canister of gas. It is a good policy to bump test at least once a week.
b) Calibration
Calibration should be performed as per the manufacturers recommendations. Calibration is done with
a known gas concentration that can be at the exact alarm point or at a higher concentration where the set point can be adjusted. This varies between manufacturers. If you are Bump/Field testing on a regular basis you can wait until that tests indicates a re-calibration is required. If Bump/Field test are not performed then the unit should be re-calibrated on a regular basis. Manufacturer’s recommendations vary from daily to never. Daily may not be practical and never, while time saving can be an invitation to disaster. Somewhere in between is the answer. Every three to six months is common.

DESIGN CHARACTERISTICS
The third component to consider in gas detector selection is design characteristics. Many gas detectors are sold solely upon these characteristics. The reason for this is that many gas detector manufacturers do not make their own sensors. They design and make the electronic box of the gas detector. The following characteristics should be considered after selecting the appropriate sensors:

• Construction
• Electronics
• Approvals
• Ease of use

a) Construction
Monitoring devices must be very rugged and easily carried by the workers. Even with training and the best intentions of the workers, field use does abuse the units. Drops, jolts, exposure to the elements, misuse, etc., all can shorten the life of the instrument. The case and its components must be constructed to withstand rough handling. The unit’s alarm systems, which should be both audio and visual, must be loud enough to be heard in your environment by either the attendant outside the space or the entrant(s) inside. In a perfect world, both attendant and entrant would hear the alarm. Some manufacturers have remote alarms that could enable both the attendant and entrant to simultaneously hear the alarm. The option is only worth the money spent if the remote wiring is long enough for all your spaces. Batteries are another consideration. Batteries can be either disposable or rechargeable but either type should supply enough power to last 10 to 12 hours. If the batteries cannot last the entire work period, a back up or stand by power source must be present. Batteries have all sorts of limitations. Many units have no way to determine the charge in them; cold and age decrease battery life; lead acid batteries can leak and damage your electronics; NiCad (rechargeable batteries) can develop memories and so on. Battery maintenance costs and efforts should be evaluated very carefully to ensure your system will work when required. The new nickel metal hydride rechargeable batteries appear to have cut down the memory problems found in the older NiCad rechargeable  batteries. For confined space work, gas detectors need to be portable (hand held). If the unit is  designed to be worn by the worker, it should rest on their belt, not weigh it down. In many tight spots, the worker should not wear the device as it may create a catch point. It may be advisable to have the ability to hang up the unit inside the space. Switches, buttons and knobs should be positioned or designed so that they cannot be knocked out of position, but one can still operate them with gloves on. The unit should be tamper resistant and default to an alarm mode in the event of battery or sensor failure. Gauges and/or displays should be large and easily read and understood. This means you must be able to not only see the displayed data, but also understand it. In confined spaces there are all types of lighting. Does the information show in all lighting situations? And finally, do the abbreviations make sense or do you need an explanation card on the detector? If the information cannot be understood, it may not be performing the job that it is intended to do.

b) Electronics
Information provided must be reliable and useful as life and death decisions can be made based on the data provided. The electronics’ response time, accuracy, precision, radio frequency (RF) interference, reading drift and sensitivity are all factors that can differentiate a poor purchase from a good investment.

c) Approvals*
Once a manufacturer has developed an instrument for use in a hazardous atmosphere, it should be approved by an independent laboratory for intrinsic safety. Ie: UL, FM, CSA, TUV, MET etc. Federal OSHA in the USA identifies such approval laboratories as “NRTL” (Nationally Recognized Testing Laboratories) and lists four pages of them on its website.

d) Ease of Use
One of the most important considerations after sensor evaluation and selection is the ease of use of the instrument. Is it simple to operate? Is it simple to understand? Are the buttons/switches easy to use with gloves on? Do you have to use switches or buttons to get alarm information? Will it alarm when battery/sensors fail? Most importantly, is it one switch operation?

TECHNICAL CONSIDERATIONS
RF Protection
Radio Frequency Interference (RFI) protection is the unit’s ability to protect the readings from interference caused by radio waves, pulsed power lines, transformers, and generators. RF protection is expressed in immunity to x watts of radio transmission at a specific distance. A prudent consumer should test a gas detector in and around cell phones, radios and walkie talkies before purchasing, especially if the gas detector is packaged in anything other than metal.

Response Time
4 SENSOR PORTABLE
COMB, O2 AND ANY 2 OF 13
FIELD INTERCHANGEABLE
TOXIC SENSORS

This is the time period between obtaining data from the sensors and displaying it. This time period
depends on what information is collected, the sensor response, how the unit of measurement being used (e.g. % LEL or PPM). Response time can range from several seconds for catalytic elements to minutes for some toxic sensors. Accuracy and Precision Accuracy is the relationship between the readout and the true concentration. This relationship is indicated by an error factor (indicated by “+/-“,e.g. +/- 0.5%). The lower the number, the greater the instrument’s accuracy. Precision is the number of times the accuracy would be right in any given number of tests (correct 19 times out of 20). In this case the higher the number, the greater the precision.


Sensitivity
This is the unit’s ability to accurately measure changes in concentrations. The hazards presented by
the substance being measured would determine the need for sensitivity. For instance, at present in Ontario, chlorine has a time weighted average exposure value of 1 PPM and if is IDLH at 10 PPM; therefore, any change must be noted at once. On the other hand, carbon dioxide’s TWAEV is 5000 PPM, and is IDLH at 40,000 PPM; therefore the sensitivity need not be that great.
Selectivity/Specificity This is the ability of the sensor/circuitry to respond to the desired target gas to the exclusion of other interfering gas species.


Reading Drifts
This is the movement in the instrument’s electronic readout when the atmospheric value remains the
same. Moving the instrument from one angle to another, shaking it, ambient vibrations or no apparent reason may cause the readout to change. Poor electronic circuit board design and/or age of the machine or the sensor will cause the readings to drift. Sensor or component aging causing this problem is acceptable and can be compensated for as part of the unit’s ongoing maintenance program; however, poor construction is not acceptable. Poor construction cannot be repaired and creates mistrust of the unit with those who work with it. If they do not trust the readings, they will not use it and a tragedy could easily occur. Your best protection is to contact current users of the instrument and ask about their experiences. Well we have now arrived at close to 4100 words on selecting a gas detector. If you are still awake, congratulations, because to get to this point you must have some interest in this topic not to have been bored to death. In closing I would like you to please keep in mind that portable gas detectors are available from a variety of manufacturers. They range from single electrochemical sensor instruments to very precise multiple sensor units. Do not be swayed by sophisticated technology and fancy packaging. Choose a device that meets your needs (both short term and for the next 3 to 5 years if possible). Look at all the variables from sensors to design, but always keep sensors as your number one criteria. Your employees also have to be considered in the equation. If not, a perfectly good gas detector will collect dust because they feel the damn thing isn’t any good! A well thought out purchase can save lives and prevent injuries