Daily Safe : Radiation Safety Handling

Alpha particles ( a ) are relatively slow and heavy.
They have a low penetrating power - you can stop them with just a sheet of paper.
Alpha particles can not penetrate your skin. Due to the low penetrating power of Alpha particles, they are generally not a cause for concern, unless you ingest some material that emits Alpha radiation.
For the most part, materials that emit Alpha particles, also emit some Beta or Gamma radiation.

Beta particles ( b ) are fast, and light.
Beta particles have a medium penetrating power - they are stopped by a thin sheet of aluminum (such as aluminum foil) or plastic. Beta particles can penetrate deeply into your skin.

Gamma rays ( g ) have a high penetrating power - it takes a thick sheet of metal such as lead, or concrete to reduce them significantly.

Preparation

• Clearly label containers, equipment, and areas for the handling of radioisotopes with radioactive labeling tape. The labeling tape can be obtained from your institution stockroom or through an appropriate vendor. Minimize radioactive material work-space.
• Use absorbent material (benchcoat) and trays to confine spills and reduce the spread of potential contamination.
• Wear protective clothing. The minimum requirements include a laboratory coat, safety glasses and close-toed shoes. Wear disposable gloves, either single or double pair, depending on the radionuclide you are working with. Choose gloves that are appropriate for the chemical and other hazards in your experiment. If you are unsure about the type of protective glove to use call the Radiation Protection Office (RPO) at 495-2060.
• Traps to collect radioactivity may be necessary (as required under some permits) (e.g.: vacuum line traps). If a trap is not available, contact the RPO.
• Dedicate equipment such as pipettes and glassware to radioactivity work and avoid cross contamination.
• Plan your experiment so that mixed waste (i.e. hazardous chemical or biologically active combined with radioactivity) is not generated. If this cannot be avoided contact the Radiation Protection Office (RPO) for further assistance.

Equipment / SuppliesEquipment / Supplies

•     A Liquid Scintillation Counter for low energy beta radiation.
•     Portable Survey Meter with appropriate probe(s).
•     Disposable latex or plastic gloves.
•     Luxel Dosimeter (and finger ring, if assigned).
•     Lab coat, safety glasses, and close-toed shoes.
•     Containers for radioactive waste.
•     Pipettes dedicated to the use of your radionuclide.
•     Safety glasses (to protect from splash and shield from beta radiation).

Work Practices Work Practices

• Change your gloves often. Assume gloves are contaminated until proven otherwise. Do not leave the laboratory or touch things outside of the work space with potentially contaminated gloves. Remove gloves carefully from the inside out. Ensure that gloves are disposed of properly and wash hands immediately.
• Do not eat, drink, smoke, chew gum, or touch exposed areas of skin while working in a room where radioisotopes are handled. Be careful not to rub your eyes, scratch exposed areas of skin, or touch your hair when working with radioactive material.
• Use automatic or remote pipetting devices. NEVER pipette by mouth.
• Allow sufficient time for frozen stock solutions to thaw before attempting to withdraw an aliquot. If you are working with 35S-methionine, Cysteine, and Translabel® refer to the related worksheet for 35S volatility.
• Handle volatile compounds, which have the potential for vapor or gas release (such as Na125I or 35S-Methionine or Cysteine) in a functioning hood.
• Handle and dispose of spin (centrifuge) columns with care. Place used columns in a sealed container (capped tube or Ziploc® bag) prior to discarding into the radioactive waste.

Post-Work

• Promptly dispose of radioactive waste properly. Make a reasonable estimate of the amount of
• radioactivity in the waste and record on a radioactive waste tag.
• Lock-up and secure your radioactive stock solutions immediately after use.
• Survey yourself and work area for contamination with an appropriate survey meter. Decontaminate if necessary. Remove protective clothing and wash hands thoroughly with warm water and soap before leaving the laboratory.
• Note the results of your survey on your personal survey record of the work area. This is required if you are working with more than 1 mCi.
• Sink disposal must be done according to the approved guidelines. Do not exceed the posted daily limit for the radionuclide, unless otherwise authorized by the Radiation Safety Committee (RSC) in the permit.
• Participate in the bioassay program as requested by the Radiation Protection Office.

Basic Principles of Radiation Measurement : type of detector

Radiation entering the detector will ionize the gas and produce positive ions and negative ions (electrons). The number of ions to be generated is proportional to the energy of the radiation and inversely proportional to the gas ionization power. Gas ionization power range from 25 eV s.d. 40 eV. The ions produced inside the detector will contribute to the formation of an electrical pulse or electric current.

Primary ions produced by radiation will move towards the appropriate electrodes. The movement of ions will cause pulses or electric current. The movement of these ions above can take place between two electrodes when there are enough electric field. When the electric field the higher the kinetic energy of the ions will be even greater to be able to hold another ionization.

The ions produced by the primary ion is referred to as secondary ions. If the electric field between two electrodes the higher the number of ions produced by a radiation would be very much and called the 'avalanche'.

There are three types of detector gas field working on different areas which rooms ionization detector, proportional detectors, and detector Geiger Mueller (GM).

Room Ionization detectors (Ionization chamber)

As shown in the above gas characteristic curve, the number of ions produced in this area is relatively small so that a high pulse, when applying pulse measurement models, very low. Therefore, typically, measurements using ionization detectors applying current way. When you will use this detector pulse by pulse amplifier is needed is excellent. The advantage this detector is able to distinguish between the energy entering and working voltage required is not too high.

Proportional Detector

Compared with the above ionization region, the number of ions produced in the region is more so proportionately higher pulse will be higher. The detector is more often used for measurements by the pulse.

Seen on the characteristic curves above that the number of ions produced is proportional to the energy of the radiation, so that the detector is able to differentiate radiation energy. However, that is a loss, or a high number of ion pulses produced is strongly influenced by the working voltage and power voltage for this detector must be very stable.

Detector Geiger Mueller (GM)

The number of ions produced in this area very much, reaching a value of saturated, so the pulse is relatively high and require no amplifier pulse again. The main disadvantage of this detector is unable to distinguish the radiation energy into it, because regardless of the amount of energy it produces ions with saturated values. These detectors are the most commonly used detectors, because of the electronic terms is very simple, do not need to use the amplifier. Most of the equipment measuring radiation protection, which should be portable, made of Geiger Mueller detector.

Scintillation detectors

Scintillation detectors always consists of two parts, namely the scintillator and photomultiplier materials. Scintillator material is a solid substance, liquid or gas that will produce sparks of light when subject to ionizing radiation. Photomultiplier is used to change the spark of light generated scintillator material into electrical pulses. Radiation detection mechanisms scintillation detectors can be divided into two stages:

* The process of changing the radiation detector to spark a light in the scintillator material and

* The process of changing spark of light into electrical pulses in the photomultiplier tube

Scintillator material

Scintillation process in this material can be explained by Figure 4. In the crystal scintillator materials are ribbons or area named as the valence band and the conduction band are separated by a certain energy level. In the ground state, the ground state, all electrons in the valence band while the conduction band is empty. When there is the radiation that enters the crystal, there is a possibility that some of the energy will be absorbed by the electrons in the valence band, so it can jump into the conduction band. A few moments later the electrons return to the valence band with energy band activator materials while emitting sparks of light.

Spark of light is proportional to the amount of radiation energy absorbed and influenced by the type of material sintilatornya. The bigger the more spark energy is light. Sparks of light are then 'captured' by the photomultiplier.

 Here are some examples of scintillator materials are often used as a radiation detector.

Crystal NaI (Tl)

Crystalline ZnS (Ag)

Crystal Lii (Eu)

Organic scintillator

Liquid scintillator (liquid scintillation)

The detector is very special compared to the other types of detectors for liquid. Radioactive sample to be measured first dissolved into liquid scintillator so that the sample and detector into a single unit of a homogeneous solution. In this measurement geometry can achieve 100% efficiency because all the radiation emitted by the source will be "captured" by the detector. This method is needed to measure samples b low-energy radiation such as tritium and C14.

Issues that must be considered in this method is the reduced quenching the transparent nature of the solution (liquid scintillator) as it gets mixed samples. The more concentrated the sample concentration will deteriorate the level of transparency so that the spark produced light can not reach the photomultiplier.

Photomultiplier tubes

As discussed earlier, each scintillation detector consists of two parts, namely scintillator materials and photomultiplier tubes. If the scintillator material serves to convert radiant energy into light the spark photomultiplier tube is used to change the spark of light into a beam of electrons, which can be further processed as a credit / electric current.

Photomultiplier tube is made of a hollow tube with a light-proof photokatoda which serves as input on one end and there are several such electrons to double dinode contained in Figure 5. Photokatoda attached to the scintillator material, will emit electrons when it is light with a suitable wavelength. The resulting electrons are directed, with a potential difference, towards dinode first. Dinode it will radiate some secondary electrons when the electrons are.

Secondary electrons generated will go dinode dinode first second and then multiplied to dinode third and so that electrons are collected at the last dinode amount to very much. With a collection of electrons capacitor will be converted into electrical pulses.

Semiconductor Detectors

Semiconductor materials, which were found relatively more recent than the above two types of detectors, made from group IV elements in the periodic table, namely silicon or germanium. This detector has several advantages, namely more efficient than gas field detector, because it is made from solid, and has a better resolution than scintillation detectors.

Basically, insulating materials and semiconductor materials can not forward an electrical current. This is due to all the electrons in the valence band while the conduction band is empty. The difference in energy levels between the valence band and the conduction band in the insulator material is very large so it does not allow electrons to move to the conduction band (> 5 eV) as shown above. Instead, the difference is relatively small in the semiconductor material (<3 eV) to allow electrons to jump into the conduction band where to get additional energy.

Radiant energy entering the semiconductor material is absorbed by the material so that some electrons can move from the valence band to the conduction band. When in between the two ends of the semiconductor materials are a potential difference, there will be an electric current flow. So in this detector, the radiation energy is converted into electrical energy.

The connection is made by connecting the semiconductor N-type semiconductors of the type P (PN junction). The positive pole of the external voltage is connected to the negative pole, while N-type to P type as shown in Figure 7. This causes the charge carriers are attracted to the positive (negative pole) while the negative charge carriers are attracted to the lower (positive pole), forming (depletion layer) layer charge on the connection PN empty. With the blank layer charge this then there will be no electric current. If there is ionizing radiation that enters the empty layer this charge will be formed new ions, electrons and holes, which will move to the poles of positive and negative. Additional electrons and holes is what will lead to the formation of pulses or electric current.

Because of the power or the energy required to produce these ions is lower than the ionization processes in the gas, then the number of ions produced by the same energy will be more. This is why semiconductor detectors are very meticulous in distinguishing the radiation energy about him or known to have high resolution. As an illustration, scintillation detectors for gamma radiation typically has a resolution of 50 keV, that is, the detector is able to distinguish the energy of the radiation that enters the two when both are having different radiation energies greater than 50 keV. Medium semiconductor detectors for gamma radiation typically has a resolution of 2 keV. So it looks that much more thoroughly semiconductor detectors to distinguish radiation energy.

In fact, the ability to distinguish the less energy required in use in the field, such as radiation surveys. However, for other purposes, for example to determine the type of radionuclides or to determine the type and grade of material, this capability is absolutely necessary.

The weakness of the semiconductor detector is more expensive, its use should be very careful because it is easily damaged and some types of semiconductor detectors must be cooled to the temperature of liquid nitrogen dewar necessitating large enough.

Excellence - Weakness Detector

From the discussion above shows that each of the radiation is converted into an electrical pulse with a height proportional to the energy of radiation. It is a phenomenon that is ideal because it is in fact not the case. There are several characteristics that distinguish one type of detector with other detectors are efficiency, speed and resolution.

The efficiency of the detector is a value that indicates the ratio between the number of pulses of electricity generated to the amount of radiation detector receives. Detector efficiency value is determined by the geometry and density of the detector material. The geometry will determine the amount of radiation that can be 'captured' so that the surface area of ​​the detector, the higher the efficiency. While the density of the material affects the amount of radiation detectors that can interact to produce an electrical signal. Materials that have a density detector closer will have a higher efficiency as more radiation interacts with the material.

Speed ​​detector indicates the time interval between the arrival of the radiation and the formation of an electrical pulse. Interact with the radiation detector speed also affect the measurement because if the detector response is not fast enough, while the intensity of the radiation is so high it will be a lot of radiation that are not measurable despite the detector.

Detector resolution is the ability of the detector to distinguish between adjacent radiation energy. A detector is expected to have a very small resolution (high resolution) so as to distinguish accurately the radiation energy. Resolution of the detector caused by the statistics of events that occur in the process of conversion of radiation energy, noise from electronic circuits, as well as the instability of the measurement conditions.

Another aspect to be considered is the construction of the detector because of the complicated construction or design of the detector will be more easily damaged and usually also more expensive.

The following table shows the characteristics of several types of detectors are generally based on several considerations above.

Selection of detector should consider the advantages and disadvantages as well as the specifications table above. For example, the detector used in portable measurement tool (easy to carry) is a best gas field detector, the detector used in measuring instruments for natural radiation (very low intensity) is preferably scintillation detector, while the detectors in spectroscopy systems for materials should analyze semiconductor detector .

Safety Regulation : Occupational Health and Safety Law

Occupational health and safety (K3) is an instrument that protects workers, the company, the environment, and society about the dangers of workplace accidents. Protection is a basic human right that must be met by the company. K3 aims to prevent, reduce, and even nullify the risk of workplace accidents (zero accident). The application of this concept should not be taken as prevention of occupational accidents and occupational diseases that are expensive (cost) of the company, but should be regarded as a form of long-term investments that benefited the rich in the future.

How K3 legal perspective? There are three main aspects, namely K3 legal norms of safety, occupational health, and the real work. Safety norms is a means or a tool to prevent occupational injury allegedly caused by the negligence and work environment that is not conducive. The concept is expected to nullify accident thus preventing the occurrence of defects or death to workers, then place and prevent damage to work equipment. This concept also prevents contamination of the environment and communities where health kerja.Norma expected to be a powerful instrument to create and maintain the health status of work as high.

K3 to the prevention and eradication of occupational diseases, such as noise, lighting (light), vibration, humidity, and others that can cause hearing damage, respiratory problems, lung damage, blindness, damage to body tissue caused by beam ultraviolet, skin cancer, infertility, and others. Norms relating to labor management. K3 in this context relates to the matter of setting work hours, shifts, working women, youth employment, overtime arrangements, analysis and management of the environment, and others. These things have a close correlation to the events of the accident.
The existence of K3 actually coincided with the industrial revolution in Europe, notably the UK, Germany and France as well as the industrial revolution in the United States. This era marked a shift in the use of large-scale production machines replacing human labor. Workers simply acts as the operator. The use of the machines produced goods in the amount doubled compared to that done earlier workers. IndustriNamun Revolution, the impact of the use of the machines is unemployment and the risk of accidents in the workplace. It can cause physical disability and death for workers. Also it can cause a huge loss for the company. The industrial revolution also marked by increasingly found chemical compounds that can endanger the safety and physical and mental health workers (occupational accident) as well as the community and the environment.

At the beginning of the industrial revolution, K3 has not become an integral part of the company. In an era in workplace accidents only regarded as accidents or occupational risk (personal risk), not the company's responsibility. This view is reinforced by the concept of common law defense (CLD), which consists of contributing negligence (contributions negligence), fellow servant rule (employment provisions), and the risk Assumption (assumption of risk) (Tono, Muhammad: 2002). Then this concept evolved into the K3 employers liability is the responsibility of employers, workers / employees, and the general public that is outside the context of Indonesia kerja.Dalam, K3 consciousness actually been around since the Dutch colonial government. For example, in 1908 the Dutch parliament urged the Dutch government to impose K3 in the Dutch East Indies were marked by the publication Veiligheids Reglement, State Gazette No.. 406 In 1910. 

Furthermore, the Dutch colonial government issued several legal products that provide protection for the safety and health are regulated separately by each economic sector. Some of them are related to the transportation sector that regulates traffic perketaapian as stated in the Algemene Regelen Betreffende de Aanleg en de Exploitate Spoor van voor Algemene en Tramwegen Bestmend Verkeer in Indonesia (general rules concerning the establishment and firm Trains and Trams for general traffic Indonesia) and Gazette 1926 No.. 334, Schepelingen Ongevallen Regeling 1940 (Ordinance Accident Seafarers), State Gazette No. 1930. 225, Veiligheids Reglement (Regulation of Employment Security in Factory and Workplace), and so on. High Concern In the early days of independence, K3 aspects of strategic issues and not become a part of humanity and justice. This is understandable because the Government of Indonesia is still in transition structuring political life and national security. Meanwhile, a new national economic wheel movement initiated by the national government and the private sector.

New K3 is a major concern in the 70's in line with the height of the capital investment and the adoption of national industry (manufacturing). This development has encouraged the government regulation in the areas of employment, including setting K3 issue. It is stipulated in Law no. 1 Year 1070 on Occupational Safety, while labor legislation earlier as Law Number 12 Year 1948 on Labor, Law no. 14 Year 1969 on Basic Provisions Regarding Labor does not state explicitly classified as K3 concept kerja.Setiap norm workplace or company must implement K3 program. The workplace is very broad dimension covers all workplaces, whether on land, underground, above ground, in water, in the air or in space.

K3 legal arrangements in the context of the above is in accordance with the sectors / areas of business. For example, Law no. 13 Year 1992 on Perkerataapian, Law no. 14 Year 1992 on Traffic and Transportation (LLAJ), Law no. 15 Year 1992 on Aviation and its other implementing regulations. In addition to the above nexus sekor, regulations related to the K3 is also found in other sectors such as mining, construction, agriculture, manufacturing industry (factories), fisheries, and other lain.Di current era of globalization, national development very closely with the development global issues such as human rights (Human Rights), the environment, poverty, and labor. Global competition is not only limited to the quality of the goods but also include the quality of care and services. Many multinational companies are only willing to invest in a country if that country has a high concern for the environment. Also sensitivity to the workers and the poor. Because it is not impossible if there is a company that cares about K3, put this in the first place as a condition of investment.

Dozen things parents can do to solve the preschool whimper

12 things parents can do to solve the preschool whimper :

1. Perform introspection.
Parents reflect on what he had done in assisting the child to know his world, already tepatkah or missing. Remember, parenting is an example / model closest to the child.

2. Spend time with children.
Actually, not the length of time together, but more on the quality of care you provide. Although only briefly but if sincere, it's better than the old but memorable imposed. If you are really tired and need to rest a little, well frankly tell the child, "Honey, Mama was so tired. Mama a quick break ya, later that night we play together." But remember, the promise must be kept. Once broken, the child would be difficult to believe with you.

3. Give understanding.
Place the child as a partner who can be consulted. Use language that is simple and easy to understand children. During the discussion, ask what his hopes of children. If you need to make a deal bersama.Misal, "Mom should not work, but on holidays, when Mama specially given to Brother." Thus the child continues to feel loved and appreciated.

4. Teach your child to express feelings in a positive way.
Keterampila Train a child in speech, so in the end the child can express what she feels better. Although children may not understand the feelings, you should still be done. Melati child expresses feelings from an early age will help children to be more assertive later.

5. Encourage children to talk or discussion.
Encourage children to talk when the whining / crying has subsided or are relaxed. Kala talk or discussion, use simple language and easy to understand. Reveal what is your desire. For example, "If Big Brother wants something, to say yes, not by whining. Nah, brother wants what? Come on, talking to Mama. If sister cry, Mama know how."

6. Teach children to resist the urge.
Children should know, not all wishes can be fulfilled. You'd better come clean, why can not fulfill her desire.

7. Pay attention to each child demonstrated good behavior.
Praise when he was not fussy or when he spoke well and express that you are happy. That way kids learned that good behavior endeared people around him. He also knows, to get the attention can be done in a better way, not with a whimper.

8. Ignore the bad behavior of children.
Ignoring a child who was crying / fussing also required. Here children learn, by whining or crying, he would not gain anything. Later when her tears had subsided, only you go and ask for whining. If you are too hebih or rush to pay attention, the child will learn that crying is a way to get prompt attention from people around.

9. Be firm and consistent.
When children want something and you do not allow, then Hold on, even if the child began to cry and whine. Because, once you are no firm or consistent, the child will learn that whining is the way lo get what you want. So, when children behave negatively, never hooked. After a long time the child will learn that his way is not going to work "steal" the attention of parents. For this to be effective should be done by anyone who is in the immediate neighborhood, both caregivers, grandparents and uncle-aunt, and other family members.

10. Divert attention.
When children whine, you could also persuade him to do other activities that attract attention / interest, such as reading a book, looking at the plants in the garden, playing in the yard. Sure, in a way that is proportional to persuade, not excessive.

11. No label.
Label a child with the words "sissy" does not necessarily make children so whiny. On the contrary, often labeled, children become increasingly lazy to change his behavior. He'll think, "What changed so baseball crybaby? I've been labeled a whiny child, too!" So, avoid the label. Better, change the child's behavior in a positive direction.

12. Avoid violence.
Both physical abuse (hitting) and nonphysical (scold, berate) should be avoided, because it is not solve the problem but it adds to the problem. Children are beaten not necessarily be whining subsides, usually even harder. Not a deterrent effect but the lessons learned that can be passed to solve the problem of violence. Remember, kids are great imitator. Whatever is done will be a model for her parents.

Safe Safety Search For Your Kids and More Internet Safety Tips

Using the safe browsing feature above ensures that Google SafeSearch is always "on". There are 3 levels of safe search filtering: Off (no filtering), Moderate (filters images only), and Strict Filtering (filters both text & images).

When conducting searches apart from this site on Google's main page, check your computer settings.

To implement SafeSearch on every computer in your school, simply have all students conduct Google Internet Searches from SafeSearchKids.com

Internet Safety Tips for Kids - Safer Search at Home and at School!

• Implement the use of Google SafeSearch by bookmarking this page here for your kids to use whenever they search online. Using this website ensures that Google SafeSearch is always turned on and always set to the most strict filtering setting.
• If your child is conducting searches on Google's main site at google.com, make sure your search settings are set to "strict filtering" at http://www.google.com/preferences.
• Do not replace parental or teacher supervision of computer use at home or at school with this safe search engine or any other. No search filtering software or tool is perfect.
• A good rule of thumb is to not allow internet use when a child is home alone without proper supervision, even with this Google for Kids search engine.
• Keep your computer in an open area. If your computer is in a home office, make a rule that doors are always left open when online.  Learn about YouTube parental controls.
• It's not a good idea to allow computers or laptops in your kids bedrooms, even while using the free internet filter, unless they are close to the main area of the house such as the kitchen or living room with doors left open.
• Be careful of allowing your kids to search for images online.  Use Googe Safe Image Search for added protection.
• Do not allow internet use after you've gone to bed at night no matter how good your computer security software is or how confident you are in kids search engines.
• Learn how to turn on safe search for times when your children are not using this website to conduct their searches.
• Consider installing a safe browser for kids or a complete security program such as Safe Eyes providing anti-virus protection as well as internet filtering.
• Do not allow file sharing programs to be installed on your computer. Only use safe and secure music download programs from trusted sources on the internet. Learn more about safe music downloading.
• If your child is searching for videos on YouTube, learn how you can activate YouTube parental controls.
• Have an open conversation with your kids about safe browsing and computer use. With freedom comes responsibility.
• Report inappropriate website that appear in our search results to create the safest search engine possible.

Internet Security Software Solutions - Internet Safety for Kids!
This site offers two computer security solutions to assist in kids internet safety on the internet, whether at home or in schools. The goal is ensure internet security for kids as well as computer security on or offline. We understand computer security is a top priority for children and teens alike.

1. The first solution is safe browsing implementing the use of Google SafeSearch for Kids. Simply use the search box above where safe search is always turned on, or click here for our secure safe search page with less graphics. Bookmark google safe search on your child's computer at home or at school.
2. The second way to protect your kids online is family internet filtering. Implment the use of Internet Security Software which blocks mature websites. For something more simple, we recommend KIDO'Z - the safe browser for kids.  KIDO'Z includes pre-loaded safe websites with the ability for parents to add additional favorites.