Application Of Precision Stampings

Precision stamping is a fast and cost-effective solution for manufacturing large quantities of complex products. There are three major precision stamping applications currently in use at factories across the globe: micro-precision stamping, intricate precision metalwork, and prototype design.

Metal stamping uses high tonnage presses and stamping dies to forge sheets of metal into complete or semi-complete parts. Precision metal stamping improves the speed and accuracy of complex stamping applications by allowing the stamping, folding, drawing, or piercing of a product in a single or series operations.

Benefits and Disadvantages Of Precision Stamping

Precision stamping can be highly automated, making the process well-suited for high-volume because labor costs drop as production levels increase. Upfront tooling costs, however, may render precision stamping ineffective for smaller production runs. Other factors to consider include long lead times and difficulty making design changes once the tools have been created.

What Is Micro Precision Metal Stamping?

Micro-precision stamping is capable of making minute stamps, cuts, bends, and folds in a workpiece. Typically, micro-precision stamping machines support tools with diameters on the micron level. Minimum diameter capabilities vary depending on the particular machine, but .002 inches and .005 inches are common minimum specifications. These micro-stamping combine photo etching technology and 3D computer software to perform highly exact operations.

Benefits of Micro Precision Thin Material

Aside from its effectiveness in manufacturing small parts, precision micro-stamping provides numerous other advantages. Some of these include:

Reduced risk: The inclusion of modular and digital tooling reduces tooling costs. Quick results: Thanks to decreased tooling barriers, production can be finished within days. Improved flexibility: Changes in product designs are less costly or time consuming than with traditional precision stamping methods.

Intricate Precision Metal Work

Complex products or innovative designs sometimes require a more sophisticated precision stamping procedure. When this is the case, manufacturers often seek out a stamping company that specializes in complex or intricate precision metalwork. These companies will have the considerable experience and advanced technologies necessary for fabricating products with intricate geometries, cuts, folds, or engravings with exact specifications. Some of the technologies that make intricate precision metal working possible include:

In-die extrusion and tapping: Extrusion and tapping are both performed in the same die to eliminate the need for a weld nut Progressive die design: This method applies sophisticated software to improve the die development. Deep draw stampings: Deep drawing allows the formation of 3D shapes, such as squares, cylinders, and shells. Transfer stamping: This technique reduces costs and secondary operations when stamping complex geometries. Class A dies: These dies deliver increased accuracy over steel rule dies. Magnified optical devices: Magnified optical devices provide more precise grinding results.

Applications of Intricate Precision Metal Work

Many industries require that produce complex components may benefit from intricate precision metal stamping. Some products routinely fabricated with the help of complex precision stamping techniques include:

Automotive engines Aircraft components Machine gears Complex electronics Telecommunication products

Prototype Design and Precision Stamping

Many precision stamping companies offer prototype design service without the need for expensive dedicated tooling. This helps make prototype design and production cost-effective prior to committing to a final design. Computer programming the stamping equipment also improves the turnaround time. While traditional techniques may take days or weeks to manufacture upfront tooling devices, a company that specializes in prototype design can often deliver same-day or next-day results.

Types of Prototype Design

Prototypes are manufactured through two main processes: single-part transfer and progressive strip prototyping. These processes entail:

Single-part transfer prototyping: In this process, individual prototype parts are manually moved from station to station. At each station, the part is blanked or metal formed. The main advantage of this method is reduced tooling costs at warehouses that maintain a standard system for design. The disadvantages of single-part transfer include high parts costs and the inability to incorporate miniature parts or complex feature tolerances.

Progressive strip prototyping: This method differs from single-part transfer in that a progressive die guides the contained stock prototype material through each step in the design process. At each station, the die completes an operation and delivers a complete product at the final stage. Movement of the die along the strip is either manual or controlled by an automatic feeder. Due to increased automation, progressive strip prototyping is good for applications that require miniature part sizes, advanced feature tolerance, and improved production speed.

Die Casting Process Types

Die casting is a popular manufacturing process for casting metal products. There are two main die casting process types and several variations in process design. When molten metal is forced into mold cavities at high pressure, it is known as die casting. The process is best suited for speedy production of bulk metallic parts that require minimal post-production machining. The main benefits of the die casting process include:

High quality: Parts created through die casting deliver a long service life. High reliability: Uniformity of mass-produced parts is exceptional. Quick production: Die cast tooling requires minimal maintenance. Versatile design: Die casting can createvirtually any size, part geometry, surface texture or luster.

Minimal assembly: Assembly features such as studs, drill holes and bosses can be integrated into mold design.

Applications of Die Casting Processes

Die casting is a process that has far-reaching applications. Any part production process that creates high-volume metal components will likely benefit from die casting. A variety of manufacturing industries currently rely on one or many types of die casting processes, including the auto, aerospace and power tools industries. Types of Die Casting Processes

All die casting process types are designed with the same goal in mind—cast a mold using injected molten metal. Depending on the type of melted metal, part geometry and part size, different die casting processes can deliver superior results over alternative methods. The two main types of die casting processes are hot-chamber and cold-chamber die casting. Variations on these two types of die casting include:

Low-pressure die casting Vacuum die casting Squeeze die casting Semi-solid die casting

The Hot-Chamber Die Casting Process

Hot-chamber die casting, sometimes called gooseneck casting, is the more popular of the two die casting processes. In this process, the cylinder chamber of the injection mechanism is completely immersed in the molten metal bath. A gooseneck metal feed system draws the molten metal into the die cavity.

While direct immersion in the molten bath allows for quick and convenient mold injection, it also results in increased corrosion susceptibility. Due to this fact, the hot-chamber die casting process is best suited for applications that utilize metals with low melting points and high fluidity. Good metals for the hot-chamber die casting process include lead, magnesium, zinc and copper. The Cold-Chamber Die Casting Process

The cold-chamber die casting process is very similar to hot-chamber die casting. With a design that focuses on minimizing machine corrosion rather than production efficiency, the melted metal is automatically- or hand-ladled into the injection system. This eliminates the necessity for the injection mechanism to be immersed in the molten metal bath.

For applications that are too corrosive for the immersion design of hot-chamber die casting, the cold-chamber process can be an excellent alternative. These applications include the casting of metals with high melting temperatures, such as aluminum and aluminum alloys.

The Low-Pressure Die Casting Process

Low-pressure die casting is a process best suited for aluminum components that are symmetric around an axis of rotation. Vehicle wheels, for example, are often fabricated through low-pressure die casting. In this type of process, the mold is situated vertically above the molten metal bath and connected via a riser tube. When the chamber is pressurized (usually between 20 and 100kPa), the metal is pulled upward and into the mold. The elimination of feeders from this type of die casting process delivers the high casting yields. The Vacuum Die Casting Process

Vacuum pressure casting (VPC) is a relatively new die casting process that delivers enhanced strength and minimal porosity. This process is similar to low-pressure die casting, except the locations of the die cast mold and molten metal bath are reversed. The cylinder chamber can become a vacuum, which forces the molten metal into the mold cavity. This design reduces turbulence and limits the amount of gas inclusions. Vacuum die casting is especially beneficial in applications destined for post-casting heat treatment. The Squeeze Die Casting Process

Squeeze casting was created as a workable solution for casting metals and alloys with low fluidity. In this process, the molten metal fills up an open die, which then squeezes closed, forcing the metal into the recessed portions of the molding. The squeeze casting process delivers extremely dense products and is a complementary process to subsequent heat-treating. The process is most often associated with molten aluminum, and is used in applications that call for fiber reinforcement. The Semi-Solid Die Casting Process

Semi-solid die casting, sometimes called Thixoforming, is another process that delivers minimal porosity and maximum density. A machine cuts the workpiece into smaller slugs, and then heated. Once the metal has reached the phase transition between solid and liquid, resulting in a somewhat slushy texture, a shot sleeve forces it into the mold cavity, where it hardens. The benefit of this is improved precision. Non-ferrous metals such as magnesium alloy and aluminum alloy are most often used with the semi-solid die casting process.

How Die Casting Alloys Work

How Die Casting Alloys Work Die-casting is a fabrication technique involving high pressure injections of liquefied metal into a cast. It is useful for accurately mass-producing items according to specifications. Many products, such as automobile parts, sink faucets, and connector housings, are created using the process.

Die-casting can be an appealing and cost-effective method for manufacturing sturdy items. When selecting an appropriate fabrication material, there are several factors to consider, including the type of die-casting process to be used and the intended function of the product.

Types of Die-Cast Processes

Two common die-casting methods are the cold-chamber and hot-chamber processes, and distinguishing the proper method largely depends on the size of the finished product and the alloy selected. For example, aluminum is a more efficient choice for the cold-chamber process than it is for the hot-chamber method.

Cold-Chamber Process: Metal is liquefied in a furnace, then ladled into a cold chamber. This technique is often used with metals that alloy quickly with iron at high temperatures, such as copper and aluminum, because these materials would regularly pose problems when melted in a (part-iron) casting machine. The cold-chamber process is better-suited to metals with high melting points.

Hot-Chamber Process: Metal is melted in the casting machine, and fed into the die. The injection method allows metal to be added more quickly, but is ineffective with materials that have high-melting points, such as aluminum-based alloys. Therefore, a hot-chamber process is typically used with tin, lead, or zinc-based alloys. Types of Alloys Used in Die-Castings

Aluminum is commonly employed in die-casting, but is prone to cracking or shrinking at high temperatures, so it is often alloyed with copper or silicon. Combining aluminum with these metals greatly increases its hardiness and fluidity. Since it has high dimensional stability, aluminum is used to create components with thin walls and complex shapes. Due to its corrosion resistance, aluminum is also beneficial in components that will face exposure to thermal or electrical energy.

Copper-based alloys are also commonly employed in die-casting. Many of these alloys are quite durable, making them an effective choice for mechanical products. Due to copper’s very high resistance to corrosion, it is often used to create plumbing and electrical material.

Zinc is relatively easy to cast and maintains high strength at room temperature, but can be alloyed with aluminum to further improve these qualities. Zinc has a lower melting point than aluminum and is suitable for hot-chamber casting. It is also valuable in the manufacture of products that require high precision and sturdiness, such as connectors and gears.

Magnesium has a high strength-to-weight ratio despite being a relatively light alloy, and it is useful for die-casting operations that require thin-structured walls and close precision.

Considerations When Choosing Die-Casting Alloys

The function and use of the final product will dictate die-casting alloy selection. For example, if the component requires high strength and corrosion resistance, an aluminum or copper based alloy could be an effective choice. Another consideration is production volume. With proper maintenance, aluminum die-casts can have a life of approximately 100,000 cycles, while zinc molds can last up to one million cycles before being replaced. For long-term, high-volume production, it may be more cost-effective to use alloys that maximize the life of the molds. When considering various fabrication methods, it may be helpful to examine the advantages and disadvantages of using a die-casting process.

Potential advantages include:

Dimensional Strength: die-cast parts are stronger than plastic components.

Rapid Production: die-cast components can be produced in high volume with relatively little tooling or machining.

Smooth Surfaces: the die-cast process can create finished parts with curved or seamless surfaces.

Accuracy: die-cast parts can be created with close adherence to specifications.

Possible disadvantages include:

High Volume: smaller production runs may reduce cost-effectiveness.

Limited Metal Fluidity: alloy malleability varies, which can limit the complexity and shape of the finished product.

Size and Weight Limits -- A casting machine’s capacity limits the range of product dimensions.

Related Products and Categories Die-casting is used for a variety of consumer, commercial and industrial manufacturing purposes, such as the production of automobile powertrains, engine parts, telecommunications equipment, marine equipment, household appliance parts and hand tools.

There are numerous variants within the die-casting process. Some of the related materials and procedures include:

Single-cavity die: A mold designed to create a single component.

Multiple-cavity die: A mold designed to create several identical parts.

Unit die: A mold designed to create several different parts that are all part of the same component.

Die lubricant: Liquid applied to the interior surfaces of the mold to ensure easy removal of the component.

How to Design a Die Casting Mold

Die casting is a technique for mass-producing metal products and components. Mold design is one of the most important steps in the process because the shape and attributes of the mold will directly affect the final product. The die casting procedure forces molten metal into molds using high pressure and it requires a mold with exact specifications to achieve the task.

The Importance of Mold Design

Mold design affects the shape, configuration, quality, and uniformity of a product created through the die casting procedure. Improper specifications can result in tool or material corrosion, as well as inferior product quality, while an effective design can improve efficiency and production time.

Factors Contributing to Quality Mold Design

There are a number of mold design factors to consider when deciding on the appropriate specifications for a project. Some of these factors include:

Die draft Fillets Parting lines Bosses Ribs Holes and windows Symbols Wall thickness

Draft

Draft is the degree to which a mold core can be tapered. A precise draft is needed to smoothly eject the casting from the die, but since draft is not constant and varies according to the angle of the wall, features such as the type of molten alloy used, shape of the wall, and depth of the mold can affect the process. Mold geometry can also influence draft. In general, untapped holes require tapering, due to the risk of shrinkage. Likewise, inner walls can also shrink, and therefore require more drafting than outer walls.

Fillets

A fillet is a concave junction used to smooth an angled surface. Sharp corners can hinder the casting process, so many molds have fillets to create rounded edges and reduce the risk of production errors. With the exception of the parting line, fillets can be added nearly anywhere on a mold.

Parting Line

The parting line, or parting surface, connects different sections of the mold together. If the parting line is imprecisely positioned or becomes deformed from work strain, material may seep through the gap between the mold pieces, leading to non-uniform molding and excessive seaming.

Bosses

Bosses are die cast knobs that serve as mounting points or stand-offs in mold design. Manufacturers often add a hole to the interior structure of the boss to ensure uniform wall thickness in a molded product. Metal tends to have difficulty filling deep bosses, so filleting and ribbing may be necessary to alleviate this problem.

Ribs

Die cast ribs can be used to improve material strength in products lacking the wall thickness required for certain applications. Selective rib placement can reduce the chance of stress cracking and non-uniform thickness. It is also beneficial for decreasing product weight and improving fill capabilities.

Holes and Windows

Including holes or windows in a die cast mold directly affects the ease of ejecting a completed molding and enables the creation of substantial drafts. Additional features, such as overflows, flashovers, and cross feeders may be necessary to prevent unwanted casting within the holes or poor material flow around the holes.

Symbols

Manufacturers often include brand names or product logos in the mold design of die-cast products. While symbols do not typically complicate the die casting process, their use can affect production costs. In particular, a raised logo or symbol requires additional molten metal volume for each manufactured part. Conversely, a recessed symbol requires less raw material and can reduce expenses.

Stainless Steel Fabricating Processes

Due to its versatility, there are a wide range of stainless steel fabricating techniques. It may be helpful to review some of the processes involved in order to better understand the benefits and disadvantages of the different types of stainless steel fabrication.

Although it has relatively high strength and work hardening rates, stainless steel is malleable enough to be bent, folded, machined, welded, deep drawn, or spun. This guide will focus on three common stainless steel fabricating processes: work hardening, machining, and welding. Work Hardening with Stainless Steel

Work hardening is the process of strengthening material through deformation. Relative to other varieties of steel, stainless steel work hardens quickly, although the exact rate depends on the specific grade of the alloy. The austenitic family of stainless steel, for example, has a hardening rate slightly higher than that of carbon steel and is a frequently used grade series in fabrication processes.

It is also helpful to match the steel grade with a work hardening treatment that is well-suited for it. Since austenitic stainless steel can usually be hardened only through cold working, a thermal treatment process would be better applied to other grades, such as those in the martensitic family. Work Hardening Rates of Stainless Steel

Since ferritic stainless steels yield lower work hardening rates, austenitic and martensitic stainless steels are the series that benefit most from work hardening applications. In some instances, austenitic stainless steel can be cold worked up to 1,000 MPa, although the maximum is typically in the 800 MPa range. When cold drawn, stainless steel may reach tensile properties of 2,000 MPa or greater, but such high strength levels are usually limited to fine wire sizes. Size is a concern due in part to the quick work hardening rate of stainless steel, which yields diminishing tensile strengthening at the core of a wire as its diameter increases.

A fast work hardening rate provides certain benefits, as well. For example, stainless steel’s hardening rate renders the alloy effective in projects that require high strength and corrosion resistance. Common applications include the manufacturing of nuts and bolts, machine parts, cryogenic machinery and hospital equipment. The martensitic group, in particular, displays the highest levels of hardness and corrosion resistance among the stainless steel categories, making it a popular alloy for the production of tools, valve parts, bearings, and cutlery. Other Characteristics of Stainless Steel

Work hardening can also increase the magnetism of stainless steel. While its magnetism tends to be relatively slight, grades with higher work hardening rates exhibit higher levels of magnetic capacity after treatment. Stainless steel also undergoes greater deformation at slower forming speeds, requiring some high-speed forming processes to be slowed down to improve their work hardening efficiency. Machining Stainless Steel

Grades 303, 430, 410 and 416 achieve resistance to chipping when alloyed with manganese sulfide. Due to the decreased ductility and corrosion resistance that comes with the addition of manganese sulfide, these grades have limited machining applications, though several free-machining grades have been developed to address the problem.

To overcome the limits of machining certain types of stainless steel, some companies have incorporated exclusive steel melting techniques to improve the machinability of commonly-used austenitic grades. These specialized processes can improve machining efficiency, and may contribute to longer tool life. Tips on How to Machine Stainless Steel

Due to several concerns, such as the possibility for chipping, machining stainless steel can be a complex process. Here are some suggestions that may help with machining this alloy:

Apply coolants or lubricants to the equipment Use large tools to help dissipate heat Maintain light cuts and constant feeds Use chip breakers to deflect debris Select a machine tool that reduces vibration Keep the cutting edge sharp at all times

Welding Stainless Steel

Most types of stainless steel can be welded, but the degree of efficiency depends on the grade. Here are some tips for welding each category of stainless steel:

Austenitic: most grades of the austenitic family, except for free-machining Grade 303, are well-suited for welding purposes. However, this group is susceptible to sensitization and inter-granular corrosion on thicker products. For projects that involve welding thick materials, it may be better to use low carbon content grades such as 304L or 316L. Some stabilized grades, such as Grade 347, may also be effective.

Martensitic: these grades are also good options for welding, but may be prone to cracking. To help reduce the likelihood of fractures, pre-heat and post-heat the material, or use supplementary austenitic filler rods.

Ferritic stainless steel: though relatively less suitable for welding, some stabilized ferritic grades, such as Grade 409, may be appropriate for certain projects. Issues such as sensitization, low ductility, and high grain growth may be overcome with the help of austenitic stainless steel fillers or by post-heating the welded material.

Duplex: this set of grades works well for low thermal expansion and is welding efficient. Some suitable welding grades such as Grade 2205, have higher nickel content to improve ductility, strength, and corrosion resistance.

Alloys Used Die Casting

As a fabrication process, die casting is notable for its capacity to manufacture parts with a high degree of uniformity, close design accuracy, and quality surface finishes. In many cases, die casting can reduce or eliminate the need for post-production machining, raising the cost-efficiency of the process and shortening fabrication time. While it may be difficult to die cast sturdier metals, such as certain grades of steel, there are many other types of alloys well-suited for die casting methods.

Die casting molds are usually constructed from hardened steel and they are often the most expensive component in a die casting machine. These molds can handle a range of different alloy families with varying results, but die casting is generally most effective on metals with low fusing temperatures. For this reason, the common die casting alloys fall into a handful of categories based on their composition and material properties.

Zinc Alloys

Zinc-based materials are relatively easy to die cast, and respond well to the die molding process. These materials are comprised of multiple metals in specific ratios. For example, a typical zinc-based die casting workpiece consists of 86 percent zinc, 4 to 7 percent copper, and 7 to 10 percent tin. Slightly higher proportions of tin make the workpiece more flexible, while increased copper levels improve rigidity. Zinc alloys have a melting point in the range of 700 to 800 degreees Fahrenheit.

Zinc alloys are often used in place of cast iron or brass, but tend to have lower tensile strength than their sturdier counterparts. Unless it is specially reinforced during the alloying process, zinc-based material cannot exceed approximately 17,000 pounds per square inch of force. As a result, die cast zinc products are generally not used in applications involving high mechanical loads. Zinc castings can also be corroded by alkaline substances or salt-water, and are often plated to preserve their luster despite atmospheric conditions.

Tin Alloys

Alloys composed with a significant amount of tin as a base metal are most often used in applications requiring corrosion resistance, such as those involving the food industry or internal and external bearings. While the proportion of metals in these alloys can vary widely, a typical tin alloy consists of 90 percent tin, 6 percent antimony, and 4 percent copper, which is added to strengthen the material’s durability. Tin alloy die castings generally weigh under ten pounds and rarely exceed 1/32 of an inch in thickness. They are valued for their resistance to alkaline, acids, and water, but feature a comparatively low tensile strength rating of below 8,000 pounds per square inch. Bronze and Brass Alloys Most bronze and brass materials can be die cast as effectively as zinc-based alloys, although small holes can only be drilled into the workpiece after casting, rather than during the casting process. Bronze and brass are commonly used to create washers, camshaft components, and decorative products (due to their distinctive coloring and potential for surface finishes). A typical brass alloy consists of 60 percent copper, 40 percent zinc, and 2 percent aluminum, but there are many variations on this mixture. Die casting bronze and brass is capable of yielding products with a durable surface and highly accurate interior specifications.

Some brasses have difficulty tolerating shrinkage from high temperature processes, but despite these challenges, most of these alloys can be used for products weighing up to fifteen pounds and with thicknesses at or under 1/32 of an inch. They are generally suitable for applications requiring tensile strength of less than 8000 pounds per square inch.

Aluminum Alloys

Die cast aluminum alloys are often found in automobile parts and gears, and have been used to create surgical instruments in the past. They are generally stronger and lighter than most zinc-based materials, but tend to be more expensive to create. Using aluminum alloys can reduce the need for finishing treatments, such as plating, and a common grade is composed of 92 percent aluminum mixed with 8 percent copper. Magnesium may be added to this alloy to improve its tensile strength from around 21,000 pounds per square inch to approximately 32,000 per square inch, while nickel can be included to increase rigidity and provide a higher surface finish. The melting point for an aluminum alloy is around 1150 degrees Fahrenheit.

Lead Alloys

Like tin alloys, lead-based materials tend to be used for their corrosion resistance and in applications requiring no more than 8000 pounds of tensile strength per square inch. Common applications include fire-safety equipment, bearings, and various decorative metal goods. They are relatively inexpensive for producing castings under 15 pounds, but lead alloys cannot be used for products that will be in contact with food. A typical lead alloy might be 90 percent lead and 10 percent antimony, with tin being a common addition as well. The melting point is usually around 600 degrees Fahrenheit, and product thickness rarely exceeds 1/32 of an inch.

For insight on the history of die casting procedures and the scientific principles underpinning them, please see Die-Casting, by Edmund Francis Lake and Chester L. Lucas.

Aluminium Extrusion in Construction

Aluminum extrusion has become an important feature in construction because of its cost benefits and structural integrity. Additionally, aluminum is prized for adding metal accents to glass surfaces. Because aluminum extrusion allows for complex shapes on long continuous pieces, it can be exploited for numerous different construction materials.

The Extrusion Process

Extrusion is a process of shaping different molten materials, like metals or plastic, by forcing them through shaped designs at high pressures. Because of the process’s flexibility, there are a number of methods for performing it, including hot or cold, and continuous or semi-continuous.

A really simple analogy for extrusion would be a pasta machine. The prepared dough is sent through a press, which emits long, continuous strands of spaghetti. Metal extrusion is very similar, except on much larger scale. A mostly automated process involves workers melting down a metal to its molten form, then transferring it to the extrusion machine. The extrusion machine then forces the molten metal, by way of either hydraulic or mechanical power, through a steel die at high pressure. If it’s a continuous extruder, the press will continue to force the metal in one long, continuous section until the piece is done. If it’s semi-continuous, the press will cut off the pieces one by one as the metal is forced through the die. The finished pieces are then transported further down the assembly line for cleaning and finishing.

Costs for extrusion are limited to die molding, materials and manpower. Because an extrusion press can be outfitted with different dies, a manufacturer investing in the press will see longterm use. Steel dies vary in price but can be expensive for more intricate, precision varieties. With aluminum extrusion, the customer is fortunate to be using a relatively inexpensive metal that also has desirable strength capabilities. Although not on the level of a case-hardened steel, aluminum’s structural integrity is quite robust while remaining light, which is why it sees use in aerospace and construction applications.

Extruded Aluminum in Construction

Extruded aluminum products are versatile, both in application and production. Manufacturing extruded aluminum can be done by either cold or hot processes, continuously or semi-continuously. Lightweight extruded aluminum paneling or guide rails are common for trailer, shed and furniture construction, but denser aluminum structures are becoming common.

Recent construction in Chicago has employed over a million tons of extruded aluminum parts. Architects of recent high profile projects going up in “The Loop,” the Second City’s famed business district, have spoken of consciously trying to fit their buildings into Chicago’s Art Deco style, while retaining a contemporary feel. An executive V.P. at Lohan Caprile Goettsch Architects said that extruded aluminum was a “perfect choice,” to maintain this classic feel, while also serving utilitarian ends. “The extruded profiles are thermally improved, so heat doesn’t transmit through the curtainwall system,” he said.

Extruded aluminum is not just limited to exterior design and function, either. Lighting fixtures, elevator shafts and stairwells all employ many different applications. While aluminum can’t make up the basic frame skeleton of a building, it accents and aids the structure in the interior. Integrated extruded aluminum design features in almost all areas of building construction, including structural mechanical, plumbing and others.

Additional bonuses to using extruded aluminum are the reusability and recyclability of the material. It is a product that is fairly easy to re-appropriate or to refashion into another use, or properly melt down and completely recycle. This makes it additionally desirable to environmentally-conscious architects and manufacturers.

References:

Aluminum Extrusion Showcase, “High-Rise building the Green Way is Transforming Chicago’s Skyline.”http://www.aec.org/exapps/greenbuildingdesign.html"

Analog Multimeter

Analog multimeters, although older than the commonly preferred digital multimeter, do come with several unique advantages. Although both digital and analog multimeters measure varying units, such as voltage, current, and resistance, they display their readings in distinctly different ways.

Analog multimeters can sometimes be difficult to read because they display data as a needle moving along a scale—this can be a benefit because the display of increased voltage (or resistance and so forth) is tangible, but can be hard for those unfamiliar with the scale. Like their digital counterparts, analog multimeters can measure a range of different electrical outputs, such as voltage, current, and resistance—as done with digital multimeters, a function must be selected and a corresponding range must be set. However, the way analog multimeters operate is fundamentally different than how digital multimeters operate.

Analog multimeters do take some energy from the circuit they are testing, whereas digital multimeters operate independent of circuit energy. In order to give an accurate reading analog multimeters need a high level of sensitivity—otherwise, the results may be skewed. When testing for resistance, the multimeter can rely on battery power.

Ranges for typical analog multimeter use varies with each application: For DC voltage, 0.5 V, 2.5V, 10V, 50V, 250V, 1000V are all standard range settings. For AC voltage, 10V, 50V, 250V, and 1000V are standard settings. Current is measured in amperes, with standard DC settings of 2.5, 25, and 250 amperes. AC current is hardly ever measured. Resistance, measured in ohms, has standard settings around 20, 200, 2000, 20,000, and 200,000 ohms. When not in use, leaving the multimeter around 10V is not a bad idea, because misusing the multimeter at this level is not likely to cause much damage.

Generally speaking, analog meter resistance should be ten times the circuit resistance to ensure accurate readings. A high sensitivity is necessary to prevent upsetting the test circuit. When it comes to price, a quality analog multimeter will cost about the same as a digital multimeter. Analog meters have several different options for displaying data: 

commonly a galvanometer registers movement, though sometimes a simulated pointer or bar graph is used instead. However, the width of the pointer and subsequent vibration can alter the resolution of a reading. Other common errors occur as a result of a user’s inability to read the results properly, and resistance readings tend be to especially difficult because the resistance circuit tends to cause heavy scale compression. These problems aside, however, analog meters can measure with three to five percent accuracy. Additionally, due to the galvanometer, they are often better than digital multimeters at determining the rate of change of a measurement reading. Some digital multimeters will even include a special bar graph display to strengthen this feature.

Industrial Product Life-Cycles

The product life-cycle is a series of different stages a product goes through, beginning from its introduction into the market and ending at its discontinuation and unavailability. These stages are commonly represented through the sales and profit history of the product itself, although there can be many other variables that affect the lifespan of a product line. Between the initial growth and concluding maturity stages, the profit curve usually reaches its peak. During the maturity phase of the life-cycle, sales volumes for an established product tend to remain steady, or at least do not suffer from major declines, but the rate of profit drops.

In most cases, the trajectory and behavior of the product life-cycle is determined by a set of factors over which manufacturers and marketers have little control, forcing them to react to changing circumstances in order to keep their product development strategy viable. These external factors include shifting consumer requirements, industry-wide technological advances, and an evolving state of competition with a company’s market rivals. The fluctuating patterns of a life-cycle indicate that a different marketing and product development approach may be needed for each stage of the cycle. Understanding life-cycle concepts can aid in long-term planning for a new product, as well as raising awareness of the competitive landscape and estimating the impact that changing conditions can have on profitability.

The Life-Cycle Curve

Industrial products usually follow an S-shaped life-cycle curve when sales and profits are plotted over time. However, certain products, such as high-tech goods and commodities, may follow a different life-cycle pattern. High-tech products often require longer development times and higher costs, making their growth stages long and their decline stages short, while commodities, such as steel, tend to have relatively static demand with sales that do not appreciably decline from an absence of competition. Sales would drop, though, from an increase in competing products.

Under most life-cycle conditions, profits typically peak before sales do, with profits reaching their peak level during the early growth stages and sales reaching their peak in the maturity stages. Competition tends to be lower at the beginning of the life-cycle, but as competing companies start to offer lower prices, newer services, or more appealing promotions in the maturity phase, the initial product must be made more attractive. This often results in comparable price drops or increased spending on advertising and promotions, as well as greater investment in distribution and modifications to the existing product. The initiatives improve sales, but drive up costs and lower profits.

The Introductory Stage

After being introduced into the market, a new industrial product will yield varying degrees of acceptance. Some products may find acceptance soon after release, while others may take longer to develop a customer base. One of the reasons for this disparity involves the skill set required to make full use of a new product. Goods that need relatively little training and do not obligate users to learn new skills or refine existing ones typically find market share more rapidly than complex products. A company that introduces a product requiring a high degree of learning and expects a relatively low rate of acceptance can focus on market development strategies to help build consumer appeal. Conversely, products with a low learning curve and a quick route toward acceptance may need a marketing strategy designed to offset rival products, as competition at these levels tends to be higher.

The Growth Stage

When an industrial product enters a period of higher sales and profit growth, the marketing plan often shifts to focus on improvements to the design and any added features or benefits that can expand its market share. Increasing the efficiency of distribution methods can help improve product availability by reaching more customers, and some degree of price reductions, particularly for large-scale operations, can be introduced to make the product more appealing for purchase. Maintaining the higher price set at the introductory stage increases the risk of competitors entering the market due to the wider profitability margin. Similarly, without stronger distribution efforts the product may have limited availability, which encourages rival companies to encroach on market share.

The Maturity Stage

The maturity stage of a life-cycle is characterized by an increase in the number of market competitors and a corresponding decline in profit growth as a percentage of sales. To compensate for the level of saturation that occurs during this phase, the product development strategy revolves around entering new markets, often through exports. It may also be helpful to increase efforts to satisfy existing customers in order to preserve the customer base. Reducing spending on marketing and production can help maintain profit margins.

The Decline Stage

In the decline stage, the competition for product pricing tends to escalate, while profits and sales generally decrease. When working with industrial products, marketers sometime opt to discontinue a product when it has reached this level or introduce a replacement product that renders the previous version obsolete. Marketing and production budgets are typically scaled back to save on costs, and resources may be shifted to newer products under development. Product decline usually proceeds more quickly among industries that rely on rapidly changing technologies, with newer advances periodically driving existing goods out of the market.

Basic Rapid Protyping Services

Rapid Prototyping, or Computer-Aided Manufacturing (CAM), is the basic production of a model using a computer-aided design. Through additive and subtractive fabrication, animation modeling software creates a physical model that closely corresponds with the visual model. The process is accurate and fast, with most machines producing a given model in just a few hours. Because the resulting prototype can be used to check visual components of the design and to verify interactions with other prototypes, it is proportionately accurate. Due to the wide array of models and production needs, there is also a variety of Rapid Prototyping Services.

Stereolithography: Quick and affordable, stereolithography (SLA) uses a photopolymer as its base material and is an easy way to create a model both highly accurate and with good surface finish. SLA uses an additive fabrication process where a laser beam traces the original design on liquid polymer, hardening the beam. Upon formation of the first layer, the subsequent layers are created in the same manner, adhering to the preceding layer. This type of rapid prototyping is useful for checking the fit, form, and function of the prototype.

Selective Laser Sintering: Much like SLA, selective laser sintering (SLS) uses an additive fabrication process to create a prototype. However, SLS actually fuses particles of plastic, metal, or ceramic powders together. The resulting prototype is generally cheaper than an SLA prototype, but takes two to three times longer to build.

Fused Deposition Modeling: Also known as FDM, this method generates a prototype using an additive fabrication process and is especially used within engineering design. FDM technology can be used with a variety of materials, such as polycarbonates and waxes, as well as a water-soluble material. FDM prototypes lack the detail of SLA models, but are highly heat-resistant and useful for functional testing.

Laminated Object Manufacturing: Like SLA, SLS, and FDM, Laminated Object Fabrication (LOM) uses an additive fabrication process, but with paper as its base material instead of photopolymer. The process highly resembles SLA production and the resulting paper model consists of multiple layers that may be treated and manipulated in the same manner as wood. The process is inexpensive due to readily available material, though the dimensional accuracy is slightly less than that of an SLA generated prototype.

Electron Beam Melting: Specifically used for metal parts, Electron Beam Melting (EBM) involves melting powder, a layer at a time, with an electron beam. The resulting components are solid and extremely strong, and can be made with a high level of precision. EBM does not require additional heat treatment after generation, which gives it a slight edge over SLS manufacturing, and also provides superior surface finish when compared to other manufacturing methods. However, because EBM takes place in a vacuum, it operates within a limited amount of space, which in turn limits the size of the component.

3D Printing: A subset of SLA, 3D printing depends on layering and connecting different cross-sections in order to offer a speedy and affordable alternative to more expensive types of model fabrication. This method is ideal for early stages of product design, when visualization is key and structural integrity is less important, because the resulting components tend to be weaker than other fabrication methods’ results.

Advantages of Rapid Prototyping Services

Rapid Prototyping Services are an effective and often inexpensive way to reduce risk and error in the final production process in products such as solid wood furniture, auto parts and aircraft parts. Prototypes not only provide a user with an idea of how the final product will look, but can also be used to test the functionality of other prototypes. Generation of prototypes is usually quite fast, and enabling feedback that may affect the original design.

Failure Ananlysis Engineering Services

Failure Analysis Engineering Services – Buying Guide

When accidents happen or other things go wrong, it is often appropriate to conduct a failure analysis. Failure analysis is the process of studying an accident to determine its causes and develop preventative procedures for future accidents. There are a number of reasons to conduct a failure analysis, such as collecting evidence for litigation, insurance claims, company restructuring, and financial needs. Basically, any company that could be liable for failure of a product, structure or vehicle should conduct failure analysis both before releasing a product to the public and after the product has been involved in an accident or failure. Because the cause of an accident can be related to different factors, such as materials, cause, location, source, and manifestation, there are different methods to approach the problem, from theoretical computer number crunching to forensic laboratory experiments. Failure engineers are qualified experts who can perform a number of tests to analyze a given problem or accident.

Failure Analysis Basics

Typically, when an accident occurs, failure engineers are on the scene as soon as possible. If there are dangers at the accident site, such as open flames or structural damage, failure engineers will wait until first responders have cleared the area and approved analysis. The failure engineers take pictures of the site and collect chemical and other material samples. Sometimes, the engineers must rely on accident results alone to approach the problem.

Failure engineers interview as many witnesses and survivors as possible in order to compose a consistent narrative of the event. If witnesses heard noises or noticed cracks, failure engineers can often pinpoint, or at least narrow down, the areas they should investigate, so as not to waste time.

Once initial observations and data collection are performed, failure engineers begin forensic analysis and experiments. Because of the wealth of information available to failure engineers, they can analyze the accident evidence through use of previous examples. For instance, in the case of building or structure failure, evidence of certain types of fatigue cracks can direct the failure engineers to investigate if proper corrosion and environmental precautionary methods were in place.

Tools Used in Failure Analysis Engineering

Failure analysts look at various pieces of evidence from the scene of an accident, or, in the case of product failure, they look at the failed product and other examples of that product. A variety of scientific tools and instruments are used to examine this evidence, including many kinds of microscopes, chemicals and spectrometers. Of course, the nature of the failure determines the nature of the investigation and tools used.

Failure analysis can require computer simulation. Often in the case of collapsed structures of vehicle failure, such as aircraft crashes. Analysts attempt to recreate all the conditions affecting the product, structure or vehicle and all of the environmental conditions involved. This process requires failure analysts to work with computer engineer simulators in order to produce the best possible reconstruction of events.

Kinds of Failure Analysis

The different kinds of products, structures and vehicles released to the public that can fail or be involved with accidents are numerous, and are matched by different kinds of failure analysis. Some companies provide a panoply of failure analysis services and engineers for contract testing services, while others specialize in a narrower range of analysis. These types of services can include:

Contamination Anaylsis Chemical Analysis Metallurgical Analysis Polymer Analysis Fuel Analysis

Additionally, some failure analysis contractors provide materials testing and nondestructive testing (NDT). These types of testing are usually performed before product release, in order to anticipate possible failures before liabilities are at stake. Nondestructive testing is a type of failure analysis that doesn’t push materials to failure, (ie, products are left in working condition and tests cause no permanent damage).

No Fault Found

In instances where tests are performed and the result is called No Fault Found (NFF). In these cases, the conditions of a failure cannot be duplicated in a lab, and thus the cause of the fault is undetermined. In these cases, there is a problem of environmental uncertainty or human error that can’t be detected in the original failure scenario. Suggestions for analyzing these types of failures involve applying more tests, contracting additional and different failure analysis contracting services or increasing the available data set for analysis.

History of the Robertson Screwdriver

The Roberston screwdriver, also known as a square screwdriver, was invented in 1908 by P.L. Robertson, a native Canadian. The screwdriver presented a solution to the frequent problem users encountered with flathead screwdrivers: the driver often slipped out of place and slowed down the process of securing the fasteners. Robertson’s design depended on the corresponding square shape on the top of screws that enabled the square-shaped screwdriver to make secure contact with the screw. As the screwdriver was rotated, it was far less likely to slip out of place and the process moved a lot faster.

Once Robertson had conceived the notion of a square-headed screwdriver, he toyed with various manufacturing methods until he was able to produce screws with a square-shaped imprint on their heads. When the correctly-sized driver is inserted into a corresponding screw, the user can rortate the driver horizontally without fear of the driver slipping. Because the driver is self-centering, only one hand is needed for rotation.

Robertson patented his invention of both the square-headed screw and driver in 1909, but The Steel Company of Canada did not take kindly to his invention. Some went as far as to try to undermine his patents, but the attempts were unsuccessful. Manufacturers took to the new designs right away, and companies, such as Ford, came to depend on the screws and driver as key components in automobile production. As a result, Robertson soon produced special metal screws for Fords’ use in Model A manufacturing. Henry Ford sought a licensing arrangement with Roberston, but Robertson turned him down.

By the end of the late 1940s, Robertson’s company had grown to employ 500 people and the screws were available in three different sizes with corresponding drivers, each distinguished by one of three colors: small drivers were green, medium drivers were red, and large drivers were black. Although the design was rapidly integrated into the Canadian market and still continues to thrive today, Robertson screws and screwdrivers were much less successful in the US and are not commonly used.

Currently, there are five different Robertson screwdrivers available, with suitable screw size indicated by the color. Orange drivers (#00) are appropriate for use with screw types 1 and 2. The recess size range (the size of the corresponding square imprint on the screw) is from 1.77-1.80 mm. Yellow drivers (#0) work with screw types 3 and 4 and feature a recess size range of 2.29 to 2.31 mm. Green drivers (#1) operate with screw types 5, 6, and 7, with a recess size range of 2.82 to 2.86 mm. Red drivers function with screw types 8, 9, and 10 and have a recess size range of 3.34 to 3.38 mm. Black drivers work with the largest screws, types 12 and higher, and have a recess range of 4.81 to 4.85 mm.

Head Bolts vs Head Studs

Choosing whether to use head bolts or head studs in an automobile engine can be an important decision that affects the way a car runs. While they are both fasteners and ostensibly serve a similar function, there are a handful of differences that make studs and bolts distinct from one another. For one, bolts are usually partially or fully threaded, while studs are typically threaded on both ends and often have an unthreaded middle section of the shaft. In addition, studs do not have a head, whereas bolts always do.

When evaluating the various benefits of studs and bolts, it is helpful to keep a number of considerations in mind. Ease of engine assembly and disassembly can be a significant factor, as well as torque pressure, gasket alignment, and overall engine performance. The power and acceleration potential of an engine often dictates the type of head fastener that will be used. For example, a high-end or racing model car will have drastically different engine fastener requirements than a vehicle designed for everyday purposes.

Head Fastener Design

Comparatively speaking, head bolt design tends to focus on stability and convenience. Engine head bolts can be cold-fabricated to increase their integrity, and are often thermally treated before they are machined or have threads cut into them. They provide relatively high strength and durability, and frequently come packaged with hardened washers or nuts. Some manufacturers produce head bolts with wide flange dimensions, which reduce the need for removing the bolts or the valvetrain when conducting cylinder maintenance.

Like bolts, head studs are also thermally treated at high pressure to improve structural strength. Studs are carefully shaped to make them concentric, usually requiring a series of cuts to produce a straight, balanced component. They can be roll threaded before or after heat treatment, although post-heating roll threads provide higher mechanical strength and stress tolerance in the final product. Some head studs are designed with gasket and cylinder alignment in mind, and they are typically more expensive than the equivalent head bolt models.

Torque Efficiency

During engine assembly or maintenance, a bolt must be installed by torqueing it into place. Due to the head bolt’s design, it has to be rotated into its slot in order to engage the threads and secure it into place. This process creates both twisting force and a vertical clamping force, which means that when the cylinders within the engine’s combustion chamber begin accumulating load, the bolt will both stretch and twist. Because the bolt has to react to two different forces simultaneously, its capacity to secure the head is slightly reduced and it forms a less reliable seal in high-powered engines.

By contrast, a head stud can be tightened into place without any direct clamping force applied through the tightening. A stud can be threaded into a slot up to “finger tightness,” or the degree to which it would be tightened by hand. Afterward, the cylinder head is installed and a nut is torqued into place against the stud. The nut torque provides the clamping force, rather than the torque of the fastener itself, and the rotational force is avoided entirely. Because the stud is torqued from a relaxed state, the pressure from the nut will make it stretch only along the vertical axis without a concurrent twisting load. The result is a more evenly distributed and accurate torque load compared to that of the head bolt. This ultimately translates into higher reliability and a lower chance of head gasket failure.

Engine Assembly

One of the main differences between head bolts and head studs involves the methods used to put together or repair an engine. Higher-end head studs that have been specially designed within exact tolerances are capable of securely positioning the head gasket and cylinders with near-perfect alignment. This feature makes it easier to assemble an engine using head studs. However, head bolts are far more convenient for disassembling an automobile engine or for performing maintenance, such as part replacement. Many everyday-use vehicles have master cylinders or other components that extend into the engine compartment. Under these specifications, head bolts allow the cylinders to be removed without removing the entire engine from the car, as is necessary with head studs.

In other words, head studs are better suited for high-performance vehicles with greater power requirements, while head bolts are more practical for personal, everyday automobiles. Therefore, it would be inaccurate to conclude that one type of fastener is categorically superior to the other. Rather, the preference depends on the automobile in question and the ways in which it will be put to use.

For racing enthusiasts, www.CircleTrack.com can provide more information on high-end engine fasteners.

How a Bolt Work

The bolt is a crucial component in modern manufacturing and has a vast range of applications in both commercial and industrial products, from airliners to gardening tools. Despite their seemingly straight forward role, bolts display a relatively complex combination of mechanical properties and design features that enable them to function properly.

A bolt’s utility is not determined simply by whether it fits into its hole or not, but rather a series of particular specifications. The type of bolt, its physical dimensions, thread density, forming material, and tightening requirements are all important characteristics for effective bolt installation. Likewise, the complementary linkage of nuts and bolts can be a significant influence on component assembly and product efficiency. Using a bolt that is too long might interfere with operations, while mounting one that lacks tensile strength may cause equipment to break down. Therefore, understanding how bolts accomplish their tasks can mean the difference between a successful project and an ineffective one. Bolt Threads

Threads are one of a bolt’s main characteristics. A thread functions under the basic concept of an inclined plane that is spiraled around the length of a fastener. This spiral requires rotational pressure to be inserted into a slot. Turning the bolt causes the threads to move the complementary slot or nut upward against the inclined plane. The greater the torque, or turning force, the greater the pressure pulling the nut forward along the threads. This in turn creates tension in the bolt and a clamping force that presses the two components together. A higher number or a denser arrangement of threads can strengthen the joint. In addition, cutting threads into the bolt after it has been heat-treated also improves thread strength. Mechanical Forces

The act of tightening a bolt engages several different types of mechanical force that help the resultant joint remain secure. The main forces generated by bolt installation include:

Clamping Force: This is a type of compression that the bolt applies to the joint, holding the two components together.

Preloading Force: Turning the bolt causes the threads to engage and stretch, which produces the preload force that keeps the threads in place.

Shear Force: The shear force is the transverse pressure working against the bolt in a perpendicular direction. It can be present alone or in combination with tension force.

Tension Force: Tension force applies to the length of the bolt, providing pressure along its vertical dimension, rather than its width.

The clamping force accomplishes the task of holding multiple parts together, and is determined by the difference between the preloading force and the tension force. When the strength of the tension force equals that of the preload force, the bolt fails and the joint breaks apart. Generally, higher preload force translates into higher clamping force, which makes for a stronger bolted joint. Ideally, precise bolt installation and tightening will create a joint that yields little or no direct shear force. More detailed equations can be found at Keeping It All Together. Manufactured for Strength

The American Society for Testing Materials (ASTM) sets most of the standards for bolt specifications in the U.S., including dimensions, forming materials, and post-fabrication finishing. Bolts are produced in a range of different lengths and can have a variety of head shapes, such as hex, oval, flat, or socket configurations. A bolt’s overall mechanical strength can be measured by the degree of strain at which it finally breaks, while its yield strength designates the level at which it bends or deforms. Although the overall, or tensile, strength is always higher than the yield strength, for a machine to run properly its bolts should have loads under the yield level. Bolts that have a wide disparity between their tensile and yield strength are considered flexible and will stretch to a relatively high degree before failing.

Bolts come in many varieties, such as T-Head or T-Slot bolts, and can be produced from a wide range of materials, but steel is the most common material used for most high-strength applications. Steel bolts are graded according to newtons per millimeter squared for tensile strength as compared to yield strength. For example, a steel bolt with a rating of 5.5 will provide roughly 500 newtons/mm2 of tensile strength and approximately 400 newtons/mm2 of yield strength. Other popular bolt materials, such as corrosion-resistant stainless steel, alloys, and composite materials can be rated in similar fashion.